The Tonto Apache Tribe of Arizona, a resilient and culturally rich group, finds its home nestled within the rugged landscape of Arizona’s Rim Country. This area, characterized by its dramatic canyons, pine forests, and sweeping vistas, has been the ancestral territory of the Tonto Apache for centuries. Today, the tribe faces the ongoing challenge of preserving its unique heritage, with elders diligently working to transmit their language, traditions, and beliefs to younger generations, ensuring the continuity of their distinct identity.
A Legacy Etched in the Land
The history of the Rim Country is deeply intertwined with the story of the Tonto Apache. Long before European contact, this region was inhabited by various indigenous groups, including the Mogollon people, who arrived around 300 B.C. The Mogollons were skilled agriculturalists and artisans, cultivating corn, squash, and beans, and crafting clothing from fur and feathers. By 1500 A.D., their culture had largely been absorbed by the Hohokam from the south and the Pueblo peoples from the east.
It was in the wake of these cultural shifts that the Apache arrived. Unlike their predecessors, the Apache were primarily hunters and gatherers, their lives dictated by the pursuit of game. Their nomadic lifestyle allowed them to adapt to the harsh environment and thrive in the region. The arrival of the Spanish Conquistadors marked a significant turning point in their history, followed by the arrival of Union soldiers during the Civil War. This area was even dubbed "Apacheria" by the soldiers, acknowledging the strong presence and influence of the Apache people.
Conflict and Resilience
The post-Civil War era brought new challenges to the Tonto Apache. The U.S. military, intent on securing the Rim Country for miners and ranchers, launched a major campaign against the "hostile" Indians. Outnumbered and outgunned, the Apache were eventually defeated and forcibly relocated to reservations in the south.
Despite the hardships of reservation life, the spirit of the Tonto Apache remained unbroken. Following the capture of Geronimo in 1886, a small group of approximately 50 Tonto Apache, diminished from a once larger population, began the arduous journey back to their ancestral homeland. More peaceful than some other Apache tribes, they re-established themselves in the Rim Country, focusing on farming and traditional practices. The memories of their ancestors, who utilized the abundant cattails for medicine, food, and religious ceremonies, guided their efforts to rebuild their lives.
Identity and Nomenclature
The official tribal name is the Tonto Apache Tribe of Arizona. The traditional name for the tribe is "Tinde," meaning "grey ones." The name "Tonto," however, carries a different connotation. Derived from a Spanish word meaning "crazy or foolish," it was given to them by other Apache groups, reportedly due to their willingness to live in proximity to white settlers. While the origin of the name may be pejorative, it has become an integral part of their identity.
Contemporary Life and Governance
Today, the Tonto Apache Tribe of Arizona is a federally recognized tribe, possessing a government established under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. This act, also known as the Wheeler-Howard Act, aimed to promote tribal self-governance. However, it also introduced a system that, while providing some autonomy, often clashed with traditional Native forms of government.
The tribal government is structured to represent the interests of its members and to manage the tribe’s affairs. The tribe also actively resisted attempts by the U.S. government to terminate them as a tribe during the 1950s. As citizens of the United States since the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, they maintain a unique relationship with the federal government. They legally acquired the right to practice their Native religion until the passage of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 (42 U.S.C. 1996). The tribe continues to navigate the complexities of this relationship while striving to preserve its sovereignty and cultural identity. Other important rights, and some attributes of sovereignty, have been restored to them by such legislation as the Indian Civil Rights Act of 1966 (25 U.S.C. 1301), the Indian Self-Determination and Educational Assistance Act of 1975 (25 U.S.C. 451a), and the Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 (25 U.S.C. 1901).
The complexities of the Wheeler-Howard Act have presented challenges for virtually every Indian nation in the United States, and the Apaches are no exception. The act subverts traditional Native forms of government and imposes upon Native people an alien system, which is something of a mix of American corporate and governmental structures. Invariably, the most traditional people in each tribe have had little to say about their own affairs, as the most heavily acculturated and educated mixed-blood factions have dominated tribal affairs in these foreign imposed systems. Frequently these tribal governments have been little more than convenient shams to facilitate access to tribal mineral and timber resources in arrangements that benefit everyone but the Native people, whose resources are exploited. The situations and experiences differ markedly from tribe to tribe in this regard, but it is a problem that is, in some measure, shared by all.
Cultural Preservation
With a registered population of approximately 100 members, the Tonto Apache Tribe of Arizona places a strong emphasis on cultural preservation. The Apache language, a vital link to their heritage, is actively being taught to younger generations. Traditional customs and beliefs are passed down through oral storytelling, ceremonies, and cultural events. The elders play a crucial role in this process, sharing their wisdom and knowledge with the youth.
Social Structure and Traditions
Traditionally, the family has been the central unit of Apache social and political life. The Apache have never been a unified nation politically, and individual Apache tribes, until very recently, have never had a centralized government, traditional or otherwise. Extended family groups acted entirely independently of one another. At intervals during the year a number of these family groups, related by dialect, custom, inter-marriage, and geographical proximity, might come together, as conditions and circumstances might warrant. In the aggregate, these groups might be identifiable as a tribal division, but they almost never acted together as a tribal division or as a nation not even when faced with the overwhelming threat of the Comanche migration into their Southern Plains territory.
The existence of these many different, independent, extended family groups of Apaches made it impossible for the Spanish, the Mexicans, or the Americans to treat with the Apache Nation as a whole. Each individual group had to be treated with separately, an undertaking that proved difficult for each colonizer who attempted to establish authority within the Apache homeland.
Apache religion is deeply ingrained in their daily lives. The sun holds a position of utmost importance as the greatest source of power. The Apache are devoutly religious and pray on many occasions and in various ways. Recreated in the human form, Apache spirits are supposed to dwell in a land of peace and plenty, where there is neither disease or death. They also regarded coyotes, insects, and birds as having been human beings. Supernatural power is both the goal and the medium of most Apache ceremonialism. Shamans facilitate the acquisition of power, which can be used in the service of war, luck, rainmaking, or life-cycle events. Power could be evil as well as good, however, and witchcraft, as well as incest, was an unpardonable offense. Finally, Apaches believe that since other living things were once people, we are merely following in the footsteps of those who have gone before.
Marriage customs also reflect the unique social structure of the Apache. Apache women were chaste before marriage. Apache culture is matrilineal. Once married, the man went with the wife’s extended family, where she is surrounded by her relatives. Spouse abuse is practically unknown in such a system. Divorce was unusual though relatively easy to obtain. Should the marriage not endure, child custody quarrels were also unknown: the children remained with the wife’s extended family. Marital harmony is encouraged by a custom forbidding the wife’s mother to speak to, or even be in the presence of, her son-in-law. No such stricture applies to the wife’s grandmother, who frequently is a powerful presence in family life. The mother’s brother also played an important role in the raising of his nephews and nieces. Although actual marriage ceremonies were brief or nonexistent, the people practiced a number of formal preliminary rituals, designed to strengthen the idea that a man owed deep allegiance to his future wife’s family.
Present-Day Expressions
The Tonto Apache continue to celebrate their heritage through various events and activities. The Tonto Apache and Yavapai-Apache perform public dances each year at the Coconino Center for the Arts in Flagstaff, Arizona, on the Fourth of July, sharing their traditions with the wider community.
Looking Forward
The Tonto Apache Tribe of Arizona faces the future with a commitment to preserving its cultural identity, strengthening its government, and improving the lives of its members. By embracing their heritage and adapting to the challenges of the modern world, they strive to ensure that the legacy of the Tonto Apache endures for generations to come.