The late 19th century was a period of immense upheaval and suffering for Native American tribes across the United States. Dispossessed of their ancestral lands, confined to reservations, and subjected to relentless assimilation policies, many tribes faced cultural disintegration and despair. It was in this context of profound crisis that the Ghost Dance religion emerged, offering a message of hope, renewal, and the promise of a return to a world free from the oppression of the white man. At the heart of this movement was a Paiute man named Wovoka, whose vision became the cornerstone of the Ghost Dance and resonated deeply with numerous tribes across the American West.
Wovoka, also known as Jack Wilson, was born around 1856 in the Walker River Valley of Nevada. He grew up immersed in the traditions of his people, learning about their history, spirituality, and connection to the land. Wovoka was a charismatic figure, known for his gentle nature and ability to connect with others. He also had exposure to Christianity, which would later influence his syncretic religious teachings.
The genesis of the Ghost Dance religion can be traced to a profound experience Wovoka had around 1889, during a solar eclipse. According to his account, he fell into a trance-like state and ascended to the spirit world. There, he encountered God, who revealed to him a vision of a future where the dead would be resurrected, the buffalo would return, and the white man would vanish, restoring the land to its original inhabitants. God instructed Wovoka to share this message with his people and to teach them a specific dance that would hasten the arrival of this new era.
This dance, known as the Ghost Dance, was a circular dance performed in a communal setting. Participants would hold hands and move in a clockwise direction, often for days at a time, until they reached a state of exhaustion and spiritual ecstasy. The dance was accompanied by songs that spoke of the coming of the new world, the return of the dead, and the banishment of the white man.
The message of Wovoka’s Ghost Dance Vision spread rapidly throughout the Native American communities, carried by messengers who traveled from tribe to tribe. It found fertile ground among tribes who had endured immense suffering and were desperate for hope. The Ghost Dance resonated particularly strongly with the Plains Indians, including the Lakota, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa, who had experienced the most devastating consequences of westward expansion.
The appeal of the Ghost Dance lay in its promise of a return to a traditional way of life, free from the hardships and injustices imposed by the United States government. It offered a spiritual solution to the social and political problems facing Native Americans. The message of resurrection and renewal provided comfort and hope in the face of despair. The vision of a world where the buffalo roamed freely and the dead returned to life was deeply appealing to people who had lost so much.
However, the Ghost Dance also aroused suspicion and fear among white settlers and government officials. They viewed the dance as a sign of unrest and a potential prelude to armed rebellion. The growing popularity of the movement prompted the government to take increasingly drastic measures to suppress it. Military forces were dispatched to reservations to monitor the activities of the Ghost Dancers, and tribal leaders who supported the movement were often arrested or intimidated.
The tension between the U.S. government and the Ghost Dancers reached its tragic climax at Wounded Knee Creek on December 29, 1890. A group of Lakota Sioux, led by Chief Spotted Elk (also known as Big Foot), were intercepted by the U.S. Army and ordered to surrender their weapons. In the ensuing chaos, a shot was fired, and the soldiers opened fire on the unarmed Lakota men, women, and children. The massacre at Wounded Knee resulted in the deaths of an estimated 300 Lakota people, effectively ending the Ghost Dance movement.
Wovoka’s Ghost Dance Vision, although ultimately unsuccessful in achieving its immediate goals, had a profound impact on Native American history and spirituality. It served as a powerful expression of cultural resistance and a testament to the enduring hope for a better future. The Ghost Dance inspired a sense of unity and solidarity among diverse tribes, and its message of renewal and spiritual awakening continues to resonate with Native Americans today.
The significance of Wovoka’s Ghost Dance Vision can be understood through the words of Wovoka himself, as recorded by James Mooney, an ethnologist with the Bureau of American Ethnology, who was sent to investigate the Ghost Dance movement in 1891. Mooney obtained a copy of Wovoka’s message from a Cheyenne named Black Short Nose, who had been part of a joint Cheyenne-Arapaho delegation that visited Wovoka in Nevada in August 1891. The message, often referred to as the "Messiah Letter," provided instructions and guidelines for the practice of the Ghost Dance.
The Messiah Letter outlines the core tenets of the Ghost Dance religion, emphasizing the importance of ritual, ethical behavior, and faith in the coming of the new world. It instructs followers to perform the Ghost Dance for five days, culminating in a communal bathing in the river. It also stresses the importance of love, compassion, and non-violence.
The letter includes the following instructions: "When you get home you must make a dance to continue five days. Dance four successive nights, and the last night keep up the dance until the morning of the fifth day, when all must bathe in the river and then disperse to their homes. You must all do in the same way."
Wovoka also conveyed a message of peace and reconciliation, urging his followers to refrain from violence and to cooperate with the white man until the arrival of the new world: "You must not hurt anybody or do harm to anyone. You must not fight. Do right always. It will give you satisfaction in life… Do not refuse to work for the whites and do not make any trouble with them until you leave them."
The letter also addresses the promise of resurrection and renewal: "Grandfather (a universal title of reverence among Indians and here meaning the messiah) says, when your friends die you must not cry… The dead are still alive again. I do not know when they will be here; maybe this fall or in the spring. When the time comes there will be no more sickness and everyone will be young again."
The Messiah Letter provides valuable insight into the beliefs and practices of the Ghost Dance religion, offering a glimpse into the hopes and aspirations of Native Americans during a period of profound crisis. It reveals Wovoka‘s vision of a world where justice and harmony would prevail, and where the suffering of his people would finally come to an end.
In conclusion, Wovoka’s Ghost Dance Vision was a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that reflected the profound social, political, and spiritual challenges facing Native Americans in the late 19th century. While the Ghost Dance ultimately failed to achieve its immediate goals, it served as a powerful symbol of resistance, resilience, and hope. The legacy of Wovoka and the Ghost Dance continues to inspire and inform Native American communities today, reminding them of their enduring strength and their unwavering commitment to a future of justice and self-determination. The tragedy at Wounded Knee should never overshadow the powerful message of hope and renewal that lay at the heart of Wovoka’s Ghost Dance Vision.