The history of Native American reservations in the United States is a complex and often tragic narrative, marked by shifting government policies, broken treaties, and profound cultural disruption. Understanding the origins and evolution of the reservation system requires examining the socio-political climate of the 19th century, a period characterized by westward expansion, escalating conflicts between settlers and indigenous populations, and evolving, often contradictory, federal strategies for dealing with Native American tribes. The genesis of the reservation system can be traced back to the mid-19th century, a period when the burgeoning United States sought to solidify its control over vast territories and resources. This article delves into the origins, implementation, and consequences of the reservation system, shedding light on its lasting impact on Native American communities.
The Genesis of the Reservation System
The formal establishment of Indian reservations can be attributed to the Indian Appropriations Act of 1851, passed by the United States Congress. This landmark legislation authorized the creation of designated areas, primarily in what is now Oklahoma, for the relocation of Native American tribes. The Act was, in essence, a response to the increasingly strained relations between white settlers and indigenous populations. As settlers moved westward, they encroached upon Native American territories, disrupting traditional ways of life and exploiting vital natural resources. This encroachment led to frequent clashes and a growing sense of unease among both settlers and Native Americans.
Prior to the 1851 Act, federal policy towards Native Americans had been inconsistent and often driven by a desire for land acquisition. Treaties were negotiated and broken, and indigenous populations were often forcibly removed from their ancestral lands. The concept of confining tribes to specific, demarcated areas was seen as a potential solution to the escalating conflict. The idea was to separate Native Americans from the path of westward expansion and, ideally, to assimilate them into mainstream American society.
Grant’s "Peace Policy" and the Rise of Reservations
By the late 1860s, the conflict between settlers and Native Americans had reached a critical point. President Ulysses S. Grant, recognizing the need for a new approach, introduced his "Peace Policy." This policy, unveiled in 1869, aimed to mitigate the violence and address the underlying causes of the conflict through a combination of diplomacy, education, and religious conversion.
A central component of the Peace Policy was the reorganization of the Indian Service, the federal agency responsible for managing relations with Native American tribes. Grant’s administration sought to replace corrupt and often ineffective government officials with individuals nominated by religious organizations. Churches, particularly the Quakers, were encouraged to send missionaries and educators to the reservations, with the explicit goal of teaching Christianity and "civilizing" the Native American population.
The rationale behind this approach was rooted in the belief that Native Americans could be transformed into self-sufficient, law-abiding citizens through education, religious instruction, and the adoption of agricultural practices. Reservations were envisioned as training grounds where indigenous people could learn the ways of the white man and eventually be integrated into American society.
Reservation treaties often included provisions for annual stipends, in which the federal government committed to providing tribes with goods and supplies. These stipends were intended to help Native Americans transition to a new way of life and to compensate them for the loss of their traditional hunting grounds and resources. However, the implementation of these treaties was often flawed, with promised goods frequently delayed or never delivered.
Controversies and Resistance
From its inception, the reservation system was fraught with controversy. White settlers often objected to the size and location of reservation lands, arguing that they were too large or that they contained valuable resources that should be accessible to settlers. As a result, reservation boundaries were frequently redrawn and reduced, further marginalizing Native American tribes.
A report submitted to Congress in 1868 highlighted the widespread corruption within the federal Native American agencies. The report revealed that government officials were often involved in fraudulent schemes, diverting funds and supplies intended for Native Americans for their personal gain. This corruption exacerbated the already dire conditions on the reservations, where poverty, disease, and malnutrition were rampant.
Many Native American tribes initially resisted relocation to reservations, clinging to their ancestral lands and traditional ways of life. The United States Army was often tasked with enforcing the relocation orders, leading to violent confrontations and a series of Native American Wars. The pursuit of tribes who refused to comply with the relocation policy resulted in numerous battles and massacres, further traumatizing Native American communities.
The Sioux War of 1876-1881, which included the infamous Battle of Little Bighorn, stands as a stark example of the conflict that arose from the reservation policy. Other notable conflicts, such as the Nez Perce War, also stemmed from the government’s attempts to force tribes onto reservations. The legacy of these wars continues to resonate within Native American communities today.
By the late 1870s, President Grant’s Peace Policy was widely regarded as a failure. The policy had not only failed to prevent violence but had also resulted in some of the bloodiest conflicts between Native Americans and the United States. In 1877, President Rutherford B. Hayes began phasing out the policy, and by 1882, all religious organizations had relinquished their authority over the federal Indian agency.
The Dawes Act and Allotment
The year 1887 marked a significant shift in federal policy towards Native Americans with the passage of the Dawes Act, also known as the General Allotment Act. This legislation abandoned the policy of treating tribes as collective entities and instead sought to divide reservation lands into individual allotments. Each Native American head of household was granted a parcel of land, typically 160 acres, while the remaining "surplus" land was opened up to white settlers.
The Dawes Act was predicated on the belief that individual land ownership would encourage Native Americans to adopt agricultural practices and assimilate into American society. However, the act had devastating consequences for Native American tribes. It eroded tribal sovereignty, weakened traditional social structures, and led to the loss of vast amounts of tribal land.
In many cases, Native Americans were ill-equipped to manage their individual allotments. They lacked the necessary skills, resources, and access to markets to succeed as farmers. As a result, many were forced to sell their land to white settlers, further diminishing tribal landholdings. The Dawes Act decimated tribal land bases and further impoverished Native American communities. The impact of the Dawes Act is a dark chapter in the history of Reservation Beginnings.
The Indian New Deal and Reversal
The disastrous consequences of the Dawes Act eventually led to a reevaluation of federal policy towards Native Americans. In 1934, Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act, also known as the Howard-Wheeler Act, under the guidance of Commissioner of Indian Affairs John Collier. This legislation, often referred to as the "Indian New Deal," sought to reverse some of the policies of the Dawes Act and to promote tribal self-governance.
The Indian Reorganization Act halted the allotment of tribal lands, restored some tribal landholdings, and provided funding for economic development and infrastructure projects on reservations. The Act also encouraged tribes to establish their own governments and to exercise greater control over their affairs.
For the next two decades, the U.S. government invested in infrastructure, healthcare, and education on reservations. Over two million acres of land were returned to various tribes. The Indian New Deal represented a significant step forward in recognizing tribal sovereignty and promoting the well-being of Native American communities.
However, the shift in policy was not permanent. Within a decade of John Collier’s retirement, the government’s stance began to swing in the opposite direction. The new Indian Commissioners, Myers and Emmons, introduced the idea of the "withdrawal program" or "termination," which sought to end the government’s responsibility and involvement with Indians and to force their assimilation. The Indians would lose their lands but be compensated (though those who lost their lands often were not.)
Although discontent and social rejection killed the idea before it was fully implemented, five tribes were terminated: the Coushatta, Ute, Paiute, Menominee, and Klamath, and 114 groups in California lost their federal recognition as tribes. Many individuals were also relocated to cities, but one-third returned to their tribal reservations in the decades following. The tumultuous history of Reservation Beginnings continued to shape Native American lives.
The Enduring Legacy of Reservation Beginnings
The history of Reservation Beginnings and the reservation system is a testament to the complex and often contradictory relationship between the United States government and Native American tribes. While the reservation system was initially intended to resolve conflicts and promote assimilation, it ultimately led to the loss of land, the erosion of tribal sovereignty, and the perpetuation of poverty and social problems.
The legacy of the reservation system continues to affect Native American communities today. Many reservations struggle with high rates of unemployment, poverty, and substance abuse. However, despite these challenges, Native American tribes have demonstrated remarkable resilience and determination to preserve their cultures, reclaim their sovereignty, and improve the lives of their members.
The ongoing efforts to address the historical injustices of the reservation system and to promote tribal self-determination represent a crucial step towards reconciliation and a more equitable future for Native American communities. Understanding the historical context of Reservation Beginnings is essential for fostering a deeper appreciation of the challenges and triumphs of Native American tribes in the United States.