Red Cloud, or Mahpiya Luta in the Lakota language, was a prominent Oglala Lakota chief who lived from approximately 1819 to 1909. His life spanned a period of immense transformation for the Lakota people, witnessing their transition from a nomadic existence largely undisturbed by European influence to life on government reservations. Red Cloud’s story is one of courage, leadership, and unwavering dedication to his people during a time of profound cultural and territorial upheaval. He is remembered as a skilled warrior, a shrewd negotiator, and a powerful orator who dedicated his life to protecting the Lakota way of life. This article delves into the formative years, military achievements, and eventual adaptation of this iconic leader.
Born near the forks of the Platte River, in what is now the state of Nebraska, Red Cloud was one of nine children. His father, himself a respected and capable warrior, raised him according to the traditional Lakota values of discipline, bravery, and respect. From a young age, Red Cloud was immersed in the skills necessary for survival and leadership on the Great Plains. This "Spartan regime," as it was described, emphasized physical prowess, horsemanship, and a deep understanding of the natural world.
Accounts of the young Red Cloud portray him as an exceptional individual. He was said to be a superb horseman, demonstrating mastery over the animals that were so integral to the Lakota way of life. He possessed the physical strength and endurance to swim across the formidable Missouri and Yellowstone rivers, a testament to his robust constitution. Beyond his physical capabilities, Red Cloud was known for his dignified bearing and unquestionable courage. Yet, these traits were balanced by a gentleness and courtesy in his daily interactions, a characteristic that would remain with him throughout his life. This combination of strength and grace, coupled with a naturally musical and agreeable voice, made him a compelling figure.
A story from his childhood illustrates the values instilled in him by his father. When Red Cloud was around six years old, his father gifted him a spirited colt. He instructed his son, "My son, when you are able to sit quietly upon the back of this colt without saddle or bridle, I shall be glad, for the boy who can win a wild creature and learn to use it will as a man be able to win and rule men." This was more than just a lesson in horsemanship; it was an early lesson in leadership, self-reliance, and the importance of mastering one’s environment.
Instead of seeking immediate help from his elders, as was common among Lakota boys, Red Cloud approached the challenge with characteristic determination. He began practicing with a lariat, patiently working to lasso the wild colt. His initial attempts were met with resistance, and he was dragged off his feet, but he persevered, clinging to the rope until he could secure the colt near his family’s teepee.
Over time, Red Cloud integrated the colt into the herd of ponies that were driven to water each day. Gradually, the pony grew accustomed to his presence and allowed him to handle it. The young boy began riding bareback, enduring countless falls as he learned to control the animal. Through sheer persistence, he mastered the art of riding without even a lariat, guiding the pony with subtle movements of his body.
Red Cloud later recounted that he broke all his own ponies from that time forward, eventually breaking his father’s as well. His exceptional horsemanship skills became widely recognized. Elders often shared stories of his success in the hunt, attributing it to his well-trained horses. By the age of nine, Red Cloud was already riding his father’s pack pony on buffalo hunts, further honing his skills and contributing to the sustenance of his family.
At the age of twelve, Red Cloud was permitted to participate actively in the buffalo chase. However, his initial experience was humbling. He found that his arrows lacked the power to penetrate deeply into the thick hides of the buffalo. Fueled by youthful excitement, he recklessly urged his horse closer to the fleeing animals. In his eagerness, he seized one of the protruding arrows and attempted to push it further into the buffalo. The enraged animal reacted violently, tossing its massive head and sending both boy and horse flying.
Fortunately, Red Cloud was thrown clear of the horse, which bore the brunt of the buffalo’s second attack. The thundering hooves of the stampeding herd quickly passed them by, but the wounded buffalo remained a threat. Red Cloud’s father skillfully diverted the animal’s attention, allowing his son to scramble to his feet and escape. This experience served as a valuable lesson in the dangers of recklessness and the importance of patience and skill in the hunt.
When asked if he could recall ever experiencing fear, Red Cloud shared a story from his adolescence. Around the age of sixteen, he had already participated in several war parties. One autumn, while hunting in the Big Horn country, his people were wary of potential encounters with hostile Crow or Shoshone warriors.
While pursuing a lone buffalo bull, Red Cloud became separated from his companions and ventured into the rugged Badlands. After successfully bringing down the game, he carefully surveyed his surroundings, mindful of potential dangers. He tethered his horse to the dead bison with a long lariat and began skinning and butchering the animal, preparing the meat for transport back to camp.
Every few moments, Red Cloud paused in his work to scan the landscape, sensing that danger was near. Suddenly, a tremendous war whoop erupted seemingly right above him. Glancing to the side, he thought he saw a massive charge of warriors bearing down on him.
In a moment of panic, he attempted to respond with the traditional Lakota war cry, but instead, a yell of terror escaped his lips, and his legs buckled beneath him. He collapsed in a heap.
The next instant, Red Cloud realized that the "war whoop" was simply the sudden, loud whinnying of his own horse, and the charging "army" was a band of fleeing elk. Overwhelmed with shame, he never forgot the incident, though he had never spoken of it until that moment. This experience likely taught him the importance of remaining calm and rational in the face of perceived danger, a lesson that would serve him well in his future leadership role.
Another episode from Red Cloud’s early life highlights his courage and diplomatic skills. While participating in a war party against the Utes, he pushed ahead of his companions and found himself alone as night fell and a heavy rain began.
Seeking shelter, Red Cloud discovered a small natural cave among the scattered scrub pines. After a quick inspection, he decided to spend the night there. Scarcely had he settled down when he heard a rustling sound at the entrance, as if something were about to share his refuge. It was pitch black, and he could not see anything, but he surmised that it was either a man or a grizzly bear. There was not enough room to draw his bow, so he prepared himself for a close-quarters fight, either with a knife against a knife or against claws.
The intruder made no move to search the cave but quietly settled down in the opposite corner. Red Cloud remained perfectly still, scarcely breathing, his hand gripping his knife.
Hour after hour, he lay awake, his mind racing. Suddenly, without warning, he sneezed. Instantly, a strong man sprang to a sitting position opposite him. The first light of dawn crept into their rocky den, revealing a Ute hunter.
Despite the perilous situation, there was a touch of grim humor to it. Neither man could afford to take his eyes off the other. The tension was palpable until a faint smile flickered across the Ute’s face. Red Cloud returned the smile, and in that instant, a truce was born between them.
"Put your knife in its sheath. I shall do so also, and we will smoke together," Red Cloud signaled. The Ute readily agreed, and they ratified their truce with a shared smoke, assuring each other safe passage back to their respective people. After finishing their smoke, they shook hands and parted ways.
Neither man had revealed any information to the other. Red Cloud returned to his party and recounted his story, emphasizing that he had divulged nothing and had nothing to report. Some were inclined to criticize him for not fighting, but the majority of the warriors supported him, praising his self-restraint.
A day or two later, they located the main camp of the enemy and engaged in a significant battle, in which Red Cloud distinguished himself.
As Red Cloud rose to prominence, the Sioux nation faced a period of immense change and escalating conflict. The introduction of firearms by white traders intensified intertribal warfare, leading to increasingly destructive battles. The younger generation of warriors began to realize that they would soon have to fight for their ancestral hunting grounds.
While the older generation had initially sought peaceful relations with the newcomers, hoping there would be enough land for all, Red Cloud recognized the growing threat to the Lakota way of life.
The turning point in Red Cloud’s career came at around twenty-eight years of age, when General Harney convened the western bands of Sioux at Fort Laramie, Wyoming, seeking an agreement and right-of-way through their territory. The Ogallalas, suspicious of the white man’s intentions, initially resisted the proposal. However, Bear Bull, an Ogallala chief, after being plied with whiskey, attempted to force the clan’s submission.
Enraged by the resistance, Bear Bull fired upon a group of his own tribesmen, killing Red Cloud’s father and brother. According to Lakota custom, it fell to Red Cloud to avenge their deaths.
Calmly, he confronted Bear Bull and his son, who tried to defend his father, and shot them both. He believed he was fulfilling his duty, and the entire band supported his actions. This act solidified his position as a leader who would defend his people against both external threats and internal injustice.
After the incident, Man-Afraid-of-His-Horse, the head chief of the Ogallalas, consulted with Red Cloud on all important matters. The young warrior rapidly gained authority and influence. By 1854, when he was barely thirty-five years old, the various bands were encamped near Fort Laramie once again.
The incident involving a Mormon emigrant train and a stray cow further inflamed tensions. When some young men killed the cow for food, an officer with thirty soldiers arrived at the Indian camp and demanded that the young men be handed over. The old chief, Conquering Bear, protested that it was a mistake and offered to make amends. However, the officer, possibly intoxicated or intent on intimidating the Indians, refused any explanation or payment and demanded that the young men be delivered for punishment.
Conquering Bear refused to be intimidated and was shot dead on the spot. In the ensuing conflict, not a single soldier made it back to Fort Laramie. Red Cloud led the young Ogallalas in the fighting, and the intensity of the conflict led to the death of the half-breed interpreter.
Despite the bloodshed, there was no immediate retaliation from the army, and a serious break did not occur until 1860, when the Sioux became embroiled in conflicts with the Cheyennes and Arapahoes.
In 1862, a major uprising led by Little Crow broke out among the eastern Sioux in Minnesota. Although the western bands did not participate, the event marked the beginning of a new era for their people.
The surveyors of the Union Pacific Railroad began laying out the proposed route through the heart of the southern buffalo country, a crucial area for the Ogallalas, Brules, Arapahoes, Comanches, and Pawnees, who depended on the buffalo for their survival.
While these tribes were often at war with each other, they would often observe truces during the summer months to hold joint councils and festivities. These gatherings now increasingly turned into discussions about the common threat posed by the white man.
Some of the smaller and weaker tribes seemed inclined to accept the new order, recognizing that the government’s policy was to end tribal warfare. However, Red Cloud vehemently opposed submission.
His speeches, delivered with passion and conviction, resonated deeply with his people. In one memorable address, he warned against the allure of the white man’s goods and the dangers of abandoning their traditional ways. He argued that adopting the white man’s values of accumulating wealth and exploiting others would ultimately lead to the destruction of their culture and way of life.
Another powerful speech delivered in 1866, before the attack on Fort Phil Kearny, reflected the growing resentment towards the white invaders. Red Cloud reminded his people of the government’s broken promises and the construction of forts on their sacred lands. He declared that he was for war, urging his people to defend their ancestral territory at all costs. This resistance to the U.S. Army, known as Red Cloud’s War, was a significant event in American history.
Less than a week after this speech, the Sioux launched an attack on Fort Phil Kearny, the newly established sentinel guarding the Oregon Trail. The attack was meticulously planned, with the young war leader Crazy Horse leading the charge. Other notable leaders included Sword, Hump, Dull Knife, and Little Chief of the Cheyennes. The success of the attack was swift and decisive. In less than half an hour, they annihilated nearly a hundred men under Captain Fetterman, who had been lured out of the fort by a ruse.
Rather than sending troops to retaliate, the government sent a commission to negotiate with the Sioux. The outcome was the Treaty of 1868, which Red Cloud was the last to sign, refusing until all the forts within their territory were vacated. All his demands were met, the new road was abandoned, the garrisons were withdrawn, and the treaty explicitly stated that the Black Hills and the Big Horn region were Indian country, reserved for their perpetual occupancy, with no white man allowed to enter without the Sioux’s consent.
However, the discovery of gold in the Black Hills soon after led to calls for the removal of the Indians, despite the solemn guarantees of the treaty. The government initially made token protests but failed to prevent the wholesale violation of the treaty. This situation prompted Red Cloud to deliver one of his last major speeches at a gathering on the Little Rosebud River.
He spoke of the hopelessness of their future as a race and seemed to acknowledge that resistance could not continue much longer. He criticized Spotted Tail for cooperating with the white man and declared that he was done with the Great Father, expressing his disillusionment with the broken promises.
After the council, the wilder bands dispersed, following the buffalo in the Black Hills and Big Horn regions. Small war parties occasionally attacked travelers and forts, as Red Cloud maintained the right to defend the territory granted to his people by the Treaty of 1868.
The land became a haven for outlaws, including horse thieves and desperadoes who preyed on immigrants and Indians alike. The government attempted to establish control through military camps and force the Indians onto reservations, but these efforts were met with resistance.
In 1876, a major military campaign against the Sioux culminated in Custer’s defeat at the Little Big Horn. Red Cloud did not personally participate in the battle, but his son was involved.
By this time, Red Cloud had become more of a councilor than a warrior, while Spotted Tail had surrendered and was working with the government. The end was inevitable. In the fall of 1876, Red Cloud’s band was surrounded by U.S. troops under Colonel McKenzie, who disarmed them and brought them to Fort Robinson, Nebraska. They were then moved to the Pine Ridge agency, where Red Cloud lived for over thirty years as a "reservation Indian." To further diminish Red Cloud’s authority, the government appointed Spotted Tail as head chief of the Sioux, although Red Cloud’s own people never recognized any other chief.
Despite the circumstances, Red Cloud continued to advocate for his people. In 1880, he appealed to Professor Marsh of Yale, exposing corruption at the agency, which led to an official investigation. During the Ghost Dance movement of 1890-1891, he was suspected of sympathizing with the hostiles but did not openly join them.
Red Cloud passed away in 1909, at the age of ninety, nearly blind. Throughout his life, he remained devoted to his wife and children. He had high aspirations for his only son, Jack Red Cloud, whom he encouraged to become a great warrior, not realizing that the era of Indian warfare was nearing its end.
Red Cloud was a quiet, straightforward, and courageous leader, deeply committed to his people and embodying the best qualities of the American Indian.
