The westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century brought settlers into direct and often violent conflict with the Native American tribes who had long inhabited the Great Plains. This vast expanse, stretching from Texas northward, became the stage for a series of wars and battles, a tragic clash of cultures and competing claims to the land. These conflicts, collectively known as the Great Plains Indian Wars, spanned decades and involved numerous tribes and military campaigns, leaving a lasting impact on the history of both the United States and its indigenous peoples. There were at least 19 major wars and numerous battles with the Plains Indians (including most of Texas, the rest of Texas is in the Southwest).
Initially, relations between the westward-moving settlers and the Native American tribes were characterized by a fragile peace, often punctuated by trade and cautious interaction. However, the discovery of gold at Pike’s Peak in Colorado in 1858 triggered a massive influx of prospectors and settlers, straining the existing balance and leading to escalating tensions.
An attempt to mitigate these conflicts was made through the Treaty of Fort Wise in 1861. This treaty sought to establish a reservation for the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes in southeastern Colorado, aiming to confine them to a designated territory and open up the remaining lands for settlement. However, the treaty was controversial from the start, as not all tribal leaders and warriors agreed to its terms. The Cheyenne Dog Soldiers, a militant society within the Cheyenne tribe, were particularly resistant, refusing to be bound by the treaty and continuing their traditional nomadic lifestyle.
The failure of the Treaty of Fort Wise to achieve widespread acceptance marked a turning point, ushering in a period of heightened conflict. The early 1860s witnessed a rapid deterioration of relations, culminating in the Colorado War and the infamous Sand Creek Massacre of 1864.
The Colorado War and the Sand Creek Massacre
The Colorado War was ignited by a combination of factors, including the increasing pressure of settlement, the perceived threat of Native American raids, and the inflammatory rhetoric of territorial leaders. John Evans, the territorial governor of Colorado, played a significant role in escalating tensions, fostering an atmosphere of fear and distrust.
Adding fuel to the fire was the replacement of regular army troops, who were needed for service in the Civil War, with the Colorado Volunteers. These volunteer soldiers, often described as "rough men," were known for their hostility towards Native Americans and their eagerness to engage in violence. Under the command of figures like John Chivington and George L. Shoup, they adopted a policy of aggression, often shooting Indians on sight.
The culmination of these tensions occurred on November 29, 1864, at Sand Creek, a site where a peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho village was encamped. Led by Chief Black Kettle, the villagers believed they were under the protection of the U.S. government and had raised an American flag as a sign of peace. However, Chivington and his Colorado Volunteers descended upon the unsuspecting village, launching a brutal and unprovoked attack.
The Sand Creek Massacre was an act of horrific violence, as the soldiers indiscriminately slaughtered men, women, and children. An estimated 200 Native Americans were killed, with many more wounded. The soldiers further desecrated the bodies, mutilating them and taking scalps and other body parts as trophies.
The Sand Creek Massacre shocked the nation and sparked widespread outrage, although it was initially celebrated by some in Colorado. Congressional investigations condemned Chivington’s actions, but he was never held accountable for his role in the massacre. The Sand Creek Massacre remains a symbol of the brutality and injustice inflicted upon Native Americans during the westward expansion of the United States.
Dakota War
The Great Plains Indian Wars included other battles. The Dakota War of 1862, also known as the Sioux Uprising of 1862, marked a major armed clash between the U.S. and the Sioux. Sparked by grievances over broken treaties and inadequate government provisions, the conflict raged for six weeks in Minnesota. Led primarily by Chief Taoyateduta (Little Crow), the Sioux attacked settlers and military outposts. Records indicate over 500 U.S. soldiers and settlers perished, with potentially more deaths from smaller raids or captivity. The exact number of Sioux casualties remains undocumented. Following the war, U.S. military tribunals convicted 303 Sioux of murder and rape, sentencing them to death. President Lincoln commuted most sentences, but on December 26, 1862, in Mankato, Minnesota, 38 Dakota Sioux men were publicly hanged – the largest penal mass execution in U.S. history. After the expulsion of the Dakota, some refugees and warriors sought refuge in Lakota lands, now part of North Dakota. Clashes continued between Minnesota regiments and combined Lakota and Dakota forces until 1864. Colonel Henry Sibley pursued the Sioux into Dakota Territory, defeating them in three major battles in 1863: the Battle of Dead Buffalo Lake, the Battle of Stony Lake, and the Battle of Whitestone Hill. The Sioux retreated further, but in 1864, General Alfred Sully decisively defeated them at the Battle of Killdeer Mountain.
Escalation and Retaliation
The Sand Creek Massacre had far-reaching consequences, igniting a cycle of violence and retaliation that engulfed the Great Plains. Survivors of the massacre joined other Cheyenne camps, where the war pipe was smoked and passed among the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho, signaling a united commitment to resistance.
In January 1865, the allied tribes launched an attack on the stage station and fort at Julesburg, Colorado, initiating a series of raids along the South Platte River. These attacks resulted in the capture of significant loot and the deaths of numerous settlers. The Native American warriors then moved north into Nebraska, heading towards the Black Hills and the Powder River Country.
Throughout the spring of 1865, raids continued along the Oregon Trail in Nebraska, targeting travelers and military outposts. In July 1865, the Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Northern Arapaho, joined by warriors who had come north after the Sand Creek Massacre, attacked troops stationed at the bridge across the North Platte River, at the site of present-day Casper, Wyoming, in the Battle of Platte Bridge.
Sheridan’s Campaigns and the Reservation Policy
Following the Civil War, the U.S. government adopted a policy of confining Native American tribes to reservations, ostensibly to protect them from further conflict and assimilate them into white society. The army was tasked with enforcing this policy, controlling the movements of the tribes and preventing them from leaving the reservations.
The Great Plains fell under the jurisdiction of the Army’s Department of the Missouri, a vast administrative area encompassing over 1,000,000 square miles. General Winfield S. Hancock initially led the department in 1866, but his mishandling of a campaign led to increased Sioux and Cheyenne raids.
Under pressure from the governors, Ulysses Grant appointed Philip Sheridan to head the Department of the Missouri in September 1866. Sheridan, known for his aggressive approach to warfare, adopted a strategy of winter campaigns, targeting Native American tribes during their most vulnerable period. His troops attacked Cheyenne, Kiowa, and Comanche winter camps, seizing supplies and livestock and forcibly relocating them to reservations.
It was during one of these campaigns that Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer led the 7th Cavalry in the Battle of Washita River in 1868, attacking the winter camp of Cheyenne Chief Black Kettle, resulting in the massacre of men, women, and children.
Red Cloud’s War
Red Cloud’s War, also known as the Bozeman War or the Powder River War, was a significant conflict fought between the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Northern Arapaho and the United States from 1866 to 1868. The war centered around control of the Powder River Country in north-central Wyoming, a vital hunting ground for the tribes.
The conflict was sparked by the construction of the Bozeman Trail, a route that cut through the heart of the tribes’ traditional territory, connecting Fort Laramie and the Oregon Trail to the Montana gold fields. The trail brought an influx of miners and settlers, straining resources and leading to increased competition for land and game.
Red Cloud, a prominent Oglala Lakota chief, led the resistance against the U.S. military presence in the area, allying with the Cheyenne and Arapaho. The war consisted mainly of small-scale raids and attacks on soldiers and civilians at the three forts along the Bozeman Trail.
The largest engagement of the war was the Fetterman Fight, in which a U.S. Army detachment of 81 men was ambushed and killed by a combined force of Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors. The Fetterman Fight was the worst military defeat suffered by the U.S. on the Great Plains until the Battle of the Little Bighorn ten years later.
The Great Plains Indian Wars led to peace achieved under the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868. The Indians were victorious. They gained legal control of the Powder River country, although their victory would only endure for 8 years until the Great Sioux War of 1876.
Black Hills War and the End of Resistance
The discovery of gold in the Black Hills in 1874 triggered another major conflict, the Great Sioux War of 1876-77. The U.S. Army failed to prevent miners from encroaching on Sioux hunting grounds, leading to renewed tensions and clashes.
In 1876, General George Custer led a force of the 7th Cavalry to the Little Bighorn River, where they encountered a large encampment of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors. Custer and his men were overwhelmed and annihilated in the Battle of the Little Bighorn, a stunning victory for the Native Americans.
However, the victory at Little Bighorn was short-lived. The U.S. Army intensified its campaign against the Sioux, eventually forcing them onto reservations.
The Great Plains Indian Wars included the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, a tragic event in which U.S. soldiers killed hundreds of unarmed Lakota men, women, and children. The massacre marked the end of organized armed resistance by the Plains Indians.
Texas Indian Wars
In the 18th century, Spanish settlers in Texas clashed with the Apache, Comanche, and Karankawa tribes. The arrival of Anglo-American settlers in the 1830s led to further conflict, particularly with the Comanche. A notable event was the Fort Parker massacre in 1836, which sparked outrage among Texans due to the abduction of Cynthia Ann Parker.
After declaring independence, the Republic of Texas initially pursued a policy of engagement with the Comanche and Kiowa. However, under the Lamar administration, the policy shifted to one of removal, leading to battles such as the Council House Fight and the Great Raid of 1840.
After Texas joined the Union in 1846, the federal government took over the conflict. The years 1856-1858 were marked by intense fighting, culminating in the Battle of Little Robe Creek in 1858, a major incursion into the Comancheria. The Battle of Pease River in 1860 resulted in the recapture of Cynthia Ann Parker. Her son, Quanah Parker, became a prominent Comanche war chief and eventually surrendered to the U.S. government in 1875.
The Great Plains Indian Wars were a complex and tragic chapter in American history, marked by violence, broken treaties, and the displacement of Native American tribes. The conflicts had a lasting impact on the landscape of the Great Plains and the relationship between the United States and its indigenous peoples.