Frank Blackhorse, also known as Francis DeLuca or Frank Leonard Deluca, is a figure shrouded in mystery and controversy, primarily known for his alleged involvement with the American Indian Movement (AIM) and the tumultuous events surrounding the Wounded Knee incident in 1973 and the Jumping Bull Compound shootout in 1975. His identity, background, and current whereabouts remain subjects of debate and speculation, making him a significant, albeit elusive, figure in the history of Native American activism and the legal battles that followed.
The historical record concerning Frank Blackhorse‘s early life is fragmented and often contradictory. One source indicates that his birth name was Frank Leonard Deluca. Another source suggests that his birth name was Francis Deluca. Adding to the confusion, a former associate, Father Michael Campagna, identified him as Frank L. Deluca, born on October 16, 1954, in Chicago, Illinois, to mother Kay Goldfein and Frank Deluca. These discrepancies highlight the challenges in establishing a definitive biographical profile of Blackhorse, contributing to the aura of enigma surrounding him.
Adding to the complexity is the extensive list of aliases attributed to him. Beyond the aforementioned DeLuca variations, he is also known as Francis Blackhorse, Bruce Johnson, Richard Leon High Eagle, Richard Tall Bull, Mike Houston, Michael Houston, Teddy Louis, and Teddy Lewis. This multiplicity of identities further obscures his true persona and makes tracking his movements and activities exceptionally difficult.
One of the most contentious aspects of Frank Blackhorse‘s identity is his claimed affiliation with the Cherokee Nation. While he self-identifies as Cherokee, some sources dispute this claim, asserting that he is not of Native American descent. The FBI, for instance, maintains that Blackhorse is of Italian ethnicity. Further complicating the matter, some sources suggest a Jewish heritage. Similarly, the location of his birth is disputed. Blackhorse claims to have been born in Cherokee, North Carolina, while the FBI contends that he was born in Cleveland, Ohio. The discrepancies regarding his ethnicity and place of birth contribute to the overall ambiguity surrounding his background and motivations.
Frank Blackhorse‘s name is most prominently associated with the Wounded Knee incident, a 71-day armed occupation of the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, by AIM members and Oglala Lakota activists in 1973. The occupation, a protest against tribal government corruption and the U.S. government’s treaty violations, quickly escalated into a tense standoff with federal law enforcement.
On March 11, 1973, FBI agent Curtis A. Fitzgerald was shot in the wrist during an exchange of gunfire. Although the circumstances surrounding the shooting remain unclear, Blackhorse was arrested and charged with the shooting of Agent Fitzgerald. He was later released on a $10,000 cash bond. However, on August 29, 1974, a Federal Grand Jury in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, indicted Blackhorse for allegedly shooting Agent Fitzgerald at Wounded Knee. Blackhorse failed to appear at his scheduled trial in Council Bluffs, leading United States District Court Judge Andrew W. Bogue to issue a bench warrant for his arrest.
The legal proceedings surrounding Blackhorse’s absence from the trial were themselves noteworthy. His attorney, Martha Copleman, was held in contempt of court for refusing to disclose the reasons for her client’s disappearance. Copleman fought to the Supreme Court for the right to withhold this information, and the Supreme Court ultimately upheld her decision. This case raised important questions about attorney-client privilege and the limits of judicial power in compelling disclosure.
The Jumping Bull Compound shootout, which occurred on June 26, 1975, on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota, further cemented Frank Blackhorse‘s notoriety. Two FBI agents, Jack Coler and Ronald Williams, were killed in the shootout. The incident led to a massive FBI investigation known as RESMURS (Reservation Murders), and Blackhorse became a suspect in the case.
Blackhorse was subsequently placed on the FBI’s 10 Most Wanted List during the 1970s, marking him as a significant target of law enforcement. Along with Leonard Peltier, another prominent AIM activist, Blackhorse was apprehended by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) in Hinton, Alberta, Canada, on February 6, 1976. They were transported to Calgary and then to the Oakalla Prison Farm in Vancouver, British Columbia.
While Peltier was extradited to the United States and eventually convicted of aiding and abetting the murder of the FBI agents, the charges against Blackhorse related to the RESMURS case were dropped. The reasons for this remain unclear, contributing to the ongoing speculation surrounding his involvement in the shootout. Some sources even claim that Blackhorse was never extradited and was allowed to remain in Western Canada.
Adding another layer of intrigue, the book Mi’ Taku’ye-Oyasin: The Native American Holocaust Volume II suggests that Blackhorse fled the United States after witnessing or participating in the murder of civil rights activist Ray Robinson and remained in Canada under various aliases. This allegation further tarnishes his reputation and raises questions about his potential involvement in other criminal activities.
The current whereabouts of Frank Blackhorse are unknown. According to the book When Will We Ever Learn, he disappeared after not being charged in connection to RESMURS. Some sources suggest that he was allowed to "disappear never to be heard from again." Antoinette Nora Claypoole, author of Who Would Unbraid Her Hair: the Legend of Annie Mae, indicates that Blackhorse disappeared shortly after Peltier’s arrest in Canada in 1976.
Despite his disappearance, Frank Blackhorse remains a figure of interest, particularly for those who believe in Leonard Peltier’s innocence. Many Peltier supporters believe that Blackhorse holds crucial information about the murder of the two FBI agents for which Peltier was convicted. They argue that locating Blackhorse and obtaining his testimony could potentially exonerate Peltier.
Michael Kuzma, a defense attorney representing Leonard Peltier, has actively sought to locate Blackhorse, even filing a lawsuit in federal court in Buffalo, New York, and submitting an application to the U.S. Department of Justice to obtain records pertaining to Blackhorse. Kuzma has also alleged that Blackhorse was an FBI operative sent to infiltrate AIM and gain the trust of its members. He claims that the FBI’s actions, including the use of informants like Blackhorse, ultimately led to the deaths of its own agents. Kuzma cites a document from January 15, 1976, in which a Royal Canadian Mounted Police official wrote about Blackhorse’s provision of information from within AIM.
However, not everyone agrees with Kuzma’s approach. The No Parole Peltier Association (NPPA) has criticized Kuzma’s efforts to secure Peltier’s parole by suggesting that Blackhorse was the reason Peltier was criticized. The NPPA argues that Peltier was aware of the individual who betrayed the group to the RCMP and that Kuzma’s focus on Blackhorse does not provide any proof or connection to Peltier and the murder of Special Agents Coler and Williams.
In conclusion, Frank Blackhorse remains an enigmatic figure whose life and actions are shrouded in conflicting accounts and unanswered questions. His alleged involvement in the Wounded Knee incident, the Jumping Bull Compound shootout, and the subsequent legal battles have made him a controversial figure in the history of Native American activism. Whether he was a dedicated activist, an FBI informant, or something in between, his story continues to fascinate and provoke debate, particularly in the context of Leonard Peltier’s ongoing legal struggle. His disappearance only adds to the mystery, leaving many to wonder about his current whereabouts and the truth behind the events that made him a fugitive and a figure of enduring interest.