Wilma Pearl Mankiller’s name resonates deeply within the history of the Cherokee Nation. She stands as a pivotal figure, a beacon of leadership and resilience. Mankiller holds the distinction of being the first woman to serve as both Deputy Chief and Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, shattering barriers and paving the way for future generations. Her journey was one marked by personal adversity, profound connection to her heritage, and an unwavering commitment to the betterment of her people.
Born in November 1945 in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, the capital of the Cherokee Nation, Wilma Mankiller’s early life was rooted in the heart of Cherokee territory. She spent her formative years in Mankiller Flats, a place steeped in family history and Cherokee tradition. Her father, Charlie Mankiller, was a full-blooded Cherokee, while her mother, Irene Mankiller, was of Dutch-Irish descent, creating a blend of cultures that shaped Wilma’s worldview. Growing up in a large family with four sisters and six brothers instilled in her a strong sense of community and responsibility.
To understand Wilma Mankiller’s impact, one must delve into the complex history of the Cherokee people. Once a thriving nation inhabiting lands stretching across Tennessee and the broader Southeastern United States, the Cherokee faced relentless pressure from encroaching white settlers in the early 19th century. This pressure resulted in displacement and division. Some Cherokee voluntarily migrated westward, establishing settlements in Arkansas, only to be later forced further west into what became known as Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma). Others resisted removal, seeking refuge in the forests of the South, eventually forming the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians.
The most devastating chapter in Cherokee history is undoubtedly the Trail of Tears. In the 1830s, the U.S. government forcibly removed approximately two-thirds of the Cherokee Nation from their ancestral lands. They were compelled to embark on a grueling march westward, largely on foot, enduring immense hardship, disease, and starvation. The Trail of Tears stands as a stark reminder of the injustices inflicted upon Native Americans and the immense suffering endured by the Cherokee people. Those who survived this horrific ordeal were relocated to a reservation in Indian Territory, where they faced further neglect and mistreatment from both the government and white settlers.
Within Oklahoma, the Cherokee population reflected a spectrum of experiences. Some embraced aspects of white culture and integrated into the economic and social fabric of the dominant society, while others remained steadfast in their adherence to Cherokee traditions and customs. This internal diversity, while contributing to the richness of Cherokee culture, also created complexities that significantly influenced Mankiller’s early life.
Her great-grandfather was among the more than 16,000 Cherokees, along with Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, Seminoles, and enslaved Africans, who were forced to endure the Trail of Tears. This perilous journey was fraught with suffering, deprivation, and the constant threat of death. The destination offered little respite, as the Cherokee people continued to face challenges in their new environment.
Government policies further undermined tribal cohesion. The allotment policy, designed to encourage individual land ownership among Native Americans, disrupted traditional communal landholding practices. Mankiller’s grandfather received an allotment of 160 acres in eastern Oklahoma, in an area known as Mankiller Flats. This land eventually became the homestead of Charlie Mankiller, Wilma Mankiller’s father, who worked tirelessly as a subsistence farmer, struggling to provide for his family.
Despite their poverty, the Mankiller family found joy and contentment in their life in Oklahoma. The land, though not particularly fertile, possessed a certain charm. Charlie and Irene shared a deep love and devotion to each other and their children. Evenings were often filled with the telling of Cherokee stories, preserving and passing down the rich history and cultural heritage of their ancestors. Wilma attended Rocky Mountain Elementary School, where she experienced, for the first time, prejudice and hostility from white individuals.
In the 1950s, the U.S. government implemented a policy of relocation, aiming to disperse Native American populations and assimilate them into mainstream society. Incentives were offered to individuals and families to relocate to urban centers across the country, where they would be encouraged to adopt white cultural norms and practices. Compounding the situation, a severe drought in Oklahoma made it increasingly difficult for Mankiller’s father to sustain his family with dignity.
Despite their deep attachment to their homeland, Charlie Mankiller believed that relocating to California offered the prospect of a better life for his family. He accepted a government offer to relocate, but the promises of assistance and opportunity proved to be hollow. Financial support was often delayed or nonexistent, and employment opportunities were scarce. As a result, their living conditions did not improve significantly after their arrival in San Francisco.
Even before their departure for California, the children felt a profound sense of homesickness. As Wilma Mankiller poignantly recalled in her autobiography, "I experienced my own Trail of Tears when I was a young girl. No one pointed a gun at me or at members of my family. No show of force was used. It was not necessary."
She further elaborated, "Nevertheless, the United States government through the Bureau of Indian Affairs, was again trying to settle the ‘Indian problem’ by removal. I learned through this ordeal about the fear and anguish that occur when you give up your home, your community, and everything you have ever known to move far away to a strange place. I cried for days, not unlike the children who had stumbled down the Trail of Tears so many years before. I wept tears that came from deep within the Cherokee part of me. They were tears from my history, from my tribe’s past. They were Cherokee tears."
In California, Wilma endured the discomfort and embarrassment of her surname being met with laughter during school roll calls. Despite these challenges, she persevered and completed high school. The Mankiller family found solace and community at the San Francisco Indian Center, and their frequent moves exposed Wilma to a diverse array of ethnic backgrounds. Her father, Charlie, became involved in union organizing and social activism, further shaping Wilma’s understanding of social justice and advocacy. Wilma Mankiller pursued higher education, demonstrating her commitment to personal and intellectual growth.
During the 1960s, she attended Skyline Junior College in San Bruno and later transferred to San Francisco State College. At San Francisco State, she met and married Hector Hugo Olaya de Bardi. They had two daughters, Felicia, born in 1964, and Gina, born two years later. College also introduced Mankiller to Native American activists who were planning to occupy and reclaim Alcatraz Island on behalf of Native American people.
The occupation of Alcatraz, a former maximum-security prison, became a powerful symbol of Native American resistance and a focal point for many Native people, including Mankiller. The protest aimed to draw attention to the deplorable conditions on Indian reservations and demand greater self-determination for Native American tribes. The occupiers invoked the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie, which stipulated that land acquired from Native Americans would revert to them if it was no longer in use.
After two unsuccessful attempts to establish a presence on the island, a group of 89 Native Americans successfully occupied Alcatraz, bringing with them food, water, and sleeping bags. Mankiller’s siblings actively participated in the occupation, while she remained at home to care for her young children and raise funds to support the occupiers. Inspired by the leadership of Mohawk activist Richard Oakes and his "All Tribes" group, Mankiller realized that her life’s purpose was to serve her people.
Her growing sense of independence and activism created conflict within her marriage. As she noted in her autobiography, "Once I began to become more independent, more active with school and in the community, it became increasingly difficult to keep my marriage together. Before that, Hugo had viewed me as someone he had rescued from a very bad life." Hugo’s conservative political views clashed with Mankiller’s increasing involvement in civil rights and anti-war movements.
In 1974, the couple divorced, and Mankiller became a single mother. She relocated to Oklahoma with her daughters, secured a position with the Cherokee Nation writing grant proposals to improve the lives of Cherokee people, and built a house on the ancestral Mankiller land.
Tragedy struck the Mankiller family in 1960 when Wilma’s brother Bob suffered severe burns in a fire. Determined not to burden his family further, he had traveled to Washington State to pick apples. In the early morning chill, he mistakenly used gasoline instead of kerosene to start a fire, causing his wooden shack to explode into flames. Bob succumbed to his injuries six days later. He had been a role model for Wilma, embodying a "carefree spirit."
In 1971, Mankiller’s father passed away from kidney disease in San Francisco. His death, she recalled in her autobiography, "tore through my spirit like a blade of lightning." The family returned Charlie Mankiller to Oklahoma for burial, after which Wilma returned to California. Soon after, she began experiencing kidney problems, a condition she inherited from her father. Her early kidney problems were manageable, but later required surgery and, eventually, a kidney transplant in 1990. Her brother Donald became her "hero" by donating one of his kidneys, saving her life.
In 1976, after permanently returning to Oklahoma, Mankiller pursued graduate studies at the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, undertaking a long daily commute. One morning, while driving home, her car collided with another vehicle on a blind curve.
Mankiller sustained serious injuries, and many feared for her life. Tragically, the driver of the other vehicle, Sherry Morris, Mankiller’s close friend, died in the accident. Despite the immense physical and emotional challenges, Mankiller recovered.
Shortly after the accident, she was diagnosed with myasthenia gravis, a neuromuscular disease. Once again, her life was threatened, but her unwavering determination and mental fortitude enabled her to overcome this health crisis.
Following her recovery from the car accident, Mankiller resumed her work with the Cherokee Nation. In 1981, she developed a proposal to revitalize the small community of Bell, Oklahoma, creating a model for other Cherokee settlements. Mankiller firmly believed in the importance of Native American self-sufficiency and independence.
Mankiller secured funding to rebuild or repair homes in Bell and to provide the community with a reliable water source. She oversaw the rebuilding efforts and the construction of a pipeline to bring water from a source 16 miles away. The men, women, and children of Bell worked tirelessly to lay the pipeline, demonstrating their commitment to their community’s well-being.
The successful completion of the Bell project in 1981 solidified Mankiller’s reputation as an effective leader within the Cherokee Nation. Chief Ross Swimmer, the elected leader of the Cherokee Nation, was deeply impressed by her work.
In 1983, Ross Swimmer invited Mankiller to be his running mate as Deputy Chief in the upcoming election, and she accepted. They won the election and assumed office on August 14, 1983. On December 5, 1985, Swimmer was nominated to head the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington, D.C., and Wilma Mankiller was sworn in as Principal Chief, making history as the first woman to hold that position. She was reelected in 1987 and again in 1991, demonstrating the enduring trust and confidence placed in her by the Cherokee people.
During the Bell community project, Mankiller collaborated with Charlie Soap, a quiet but influential Cherokee man. They discovered shared interests and developed a close friendship. In 1986, they married, and Charlie Soap became a trusted advisor and unwavering supporter of Chief Mankiller.
As Principal Chief, Mankiller prioritized involving the Cherokee people in community improvement initiatives. She continued Swimmer’s policy of fostering economic development, overseeing a corporation that included a motel, an electronics manufacturing plant, and a bank. She raised $20 million for new construction projects in Cherokee communities and $8 million to establish a Cherokee job training center. She championed the creation of schools for Cherokee children that teach the Cherokee language and traditions, believing that this knowledge would foster a sense of pride and identity among the Cherokee people.
One of Mankiller’s most significant accomplishments was her effort to reunite the Cherokee Nation in 1987. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, who had evaded forced removal in the 1830s and settled on a reservation in Tennessee, had remained separated from the Western Cherokee for many years. In 1987, Mankiller organized and presided over a conference of all Cherokee representatives, taking a crucial step toward reconciliation and reunification.
Power is returning to the Western Cherokee people, who number more than 175,000. Mankiller proved to be an inspirational leader who empowered people to independence. The key to Cherokee success, according to Mankiller, is that the Cherokee never give up.
Wilma Pearl Mankiller’s legacy extends far beyond her groundbreaking achievements. She was a symbol of hope, resilience, and the enduring strength of the Cherokee spirit. Her leadership inspired countless individuals, both within and outside the Cherokee Nation, to strive for a better future. Her life serves as a powerful reminder of the importance of preserving cultural heritage, advocating for social justice, and empowering communities to take control of their own destinies.