The Tohono O’odham Nation of Arizona is a federally recognized tribe comprised of people who primarily reside on four separate land bases within the state of Arizona. The ancestral lands of the Tohono O’odham, meaning "Desert People," extend beyond the modern-day boundaries of the United States, with significant populations also residing in northwestern Mexico, maintaining cultural and familial ties across the international border. This article explores the rich history, culture, governance, and contemporary life of the Tohono O’odham Nation of Arizona.
Identity and Nomenclature
The name "Tohono O’odham," adopted in 1986, reflects the people’s deep connection to the arid Sonoran Desert environment. Historically, they were known as the "Papago," a name given to them by the Pima, their competitors. The Pima term Ba:bawĭkoʼa, meaning "eating tepary beans," was adopted and pronounced "Papago" by the Spanish, and later by English speakers. The tepary bean was a staple crop for the desert dwellers. Today, the tribe officially identifies as the Tohono O’odham Nation of Arizona, emphasizing their self-determined identity and cultural heritage.
Location and Land
The Tohono O’odham Nation of Arizona possesses a significant land base, encompassing approximately 2.8 million acres (4,460 square miles), roughly equivalent to the size of the state of Connecticut. This land is divided into four primary sections:
- The Main Reservation: The largest contiguous land base, exceeding 2.7 million acres, stretches south from Casa Grande and encompasses portions of Pinal, Pima, and Maricopa Counties, extending into Mexico. This vast territory is the heartland of the Tohono O’odham Nation.
- San Xavier District: Located south of Tucson, the San Xavier District comprises 71,095 acres and is renowned for the historic Mission San Xavier del Bac.
- San Lucy District: Situated near the city of Gila Bend, the San Lucy District represents a smaller, but important, parcel of land.
- Florence Village: Located near the city of Florence, this village represents another smaller land holding.
The tribal headquarters is located in Sells, Arizona, placing it centrally within the main reservation. The time zone observed is Mountain Standard Time.
Governance and Structure
The Tohono O’odham Nation operates under a constitution adopted in 1986, which outlines a tripartite system of government. This system includes:
- Executive Branch: Headed by the Chairman and Vice-Chairman, who are elected by the entire nation. This branch is responsible for implementing laws and policies, managing tribal affairs, and representing the Nation in external relations.
- Legislative Branch: The Tribal Council, composed of 24 members, with two representatives elected from each of the twelve districts within the nation. The Tribal Council serves as the legislative body, enacting laws, approving budgets, and addressing issues of concern to the Nation.
- Judicial Branch: Consists of tribal courts and judges, responsible for interpreting laws, resolving disputes, and administering justice within the Tohono O’odham Nation.
Each of the twelve districts also has its own internal governance structure, comprising a Chairman, Vice-Chairman, Secretary, and Treasurer, who manage local affairs and represent the district’s interests within the larger Nation. Elections are held regularly to ensure representation and accountability.
Demographics and Population
As of 2007, the registered population of the Tohono O’odham Nation of Arizona was approximately 28,083 individuals. Tribal enrollment requirements are in place to determine eligibility for membership in the Nation. Genealogy resources are available to assist individuals in tracing their ancestry and establishing tribal affiliation.
Cultural Identity and Language
The Tohono O’odham language, classified within the Uto-Aztecan language family, is a vital component of the tribe’s cultural identity. The language, also known as O’odham, has several dialects. While the number of fluent speakers has declined over time, efforts are underway to revitalize the language through education programs and cultural preservation initiatives.
History and Origins
The origins of the Tohono O’odham are subject to ongoing scholarly debate. Some theories suggest a relatively recent migration northward, while others propose a direct lineage from the ancient Hohokam people who inhabited the region and left behind the impressive Casa Grande Ruins. Research on the Sobaipuri, related to both the Tohono O’odham and Akimel O’odham, indicates a significant presence in southern Arizona river valleys as early as the fifteenth century.
Intertribal Relations and Conflict
The Tohono O’odham share linguistic and cultural connections with the Akimel O’odham (People of the River), whose lands lie along the Gila River. Both groups trace their ancestry to the Sobaipuri. Historically, the Tohono O’odham faced conflict with the nomadic Apache tribes from the late seventeenth century to the early twentieth century, primarily due to raiding for resources. However, there is also evidence of periods of trade and intermarriage between the two groups, suggesting a more complex relationship. The relationship between the O’odham and Apache was especially strained after 92 O’odham joined the Mexicans and Anglo-Americans and killed close to 144 Apaches during the Camp Grant massacre in 1871.
Cultural Practices and Traditions
Traditional Tohono O’odham ceremonies and dances often feature understated elements, focusing on simplicity and connection to the desert environment. Musical accompaniment typically involves hard wood rasps and drumming on overturned baskets, creating sounds that blend with the landscape. Dancing often involves quiet skipping and shuffling movements on bare feet, with the dust raised believed to contribute to rain cloud formation.
Contemporary Life and Events
The Tohono O’odham Nation of Arizona hosts the annual Sells Rodeo and Parade every February in its capital. Founded in 1938, the rodeo celebrates traditional frontier skills related to riding and managing cattle.
Subsistence and Diet
Historically, the Tohono O’odham were settled agriculturalists, cultivating crops adapted to the arid climate. Their diet consisted of wild game, insects, and a variety of regionally available plants, including ironwood seed, honey mesquite, hog potato, and organ-pipe cactus fruit. They cultivated crops such as white tepary beans, Papago peas, and Spanish watermelons. Since the 1960s, a shift towards "Western" diets has contributed to health challenges, including obesity and type 2 diabetes.
Religion and Spirituality
The San Xavier District is home to Mission San Xavier del Bac, a historic landmark known as the "White Dove of the Desert." Founded in 1700 by Jesuit missionary Eusebio Kino, the mission was constructed by the Tohono O’odham people. The mission stands as a testament to the complex interactions between the Tohono O’odham and European cultures. While the mission is a popular tourist destination, it’s important to remember that the Tohono O’odham resisted change for hundreds of years.
Education
The Tohono O’odham Nation of Arizona operates its own tribal college, Tohono O’odham Community College, which provides higher education opportunities to tribal members and others.
Challenges and Resilience
The Tohono O’odham Nation of Arizona faces numerous challenges, including preserving its cultural identity, addressing health disparities, and navigating complex political and economic issues. Despite these challenges, the Tohono O’odham people have demonstrated remarkable resilience, maintaining their traditions, language, and self-governance in the face of historical and contemporary pressures. Their commitment to cultural preservation and self-determination ensures a vibrant future for the Tohono O’odham Nation of Arizona.