The Spokane Indian Reservation, a sovereign nation within the United States, holds a rich and complex history, deeply intertwined with the land it occupies and the resilience of its people. This article delves into the historical context, governance, economy, demographics, and cultural preservation efforts of the Spokane Tribe of Indians, offering a comprehensive look at their past, present, and future.
Historical Context: From Ancestral Lands to Reservation Establishment
The Spokane people, known in their Salish language as "Sp’q’n’i," have called the Inland Northwest home for countless generations. Their ancestral homelands stretched along the Spokane River, a vital artery of life, from the present-day city of Spokane eastward to the Idaho border and westward to the confluence of the Spokane and Columbia Rivers. This vast territory, encompassing over three million acres, provided sustenance and shaped the cultural identity of the Spokane people.
Prior to European contact, the Spokane lived in autonomous bands, each with its own leadership and decision-making processes. These bands, however, were not isolated entities. They maintained strong economic and cultural ties with neighboring groups, including the Kalispel to the east and the Chewelah to the north, fostering a network of interconnected communities. The Spokane people were skilled hunter-gatherers, moving seasonally to follow the rhythms of nature, hunting game, fishing for salmon, and harvesting a variety of plants and roots.
The arrival of European settlers in the 19th century brought profound changes to the Spokane way of life. As settlers encroached upon their lands, pressures mounted for the Spokane to cede their territory and relocate to a designated reservation. Treaty negotiations with regional tribes took place between 1854 and 1855, but the Spokane were not initially party to these treaties.
Despite the good relationship that existed between the leader of the Upper Spokane, Chief Garry, and Governor Stevens, Stevens still insisted that the Indian title to land between the Cascade and Rocky Mountains be extinguished. A proposition for the creation of a single, large joint reservation for all the tribes was rejected by some 5,000 Indians. Stevens had to settle for three separate treaties and three reservations for the Yakima, the Nez Perce, and the Walla Walla, Umatilla and Cayuse. The Spokane were not party to these treaties.
The increased settlement on Indian lands led to hostilities in which the Spokane joined, resulting in them defeating Colonel Steptoe at Pine Creek.
Colonel George Wright retaliated in a particularly brutal manner and resulted in the hanging of several Indians. He also destroyed 690 horses. Wright negotiated a treaty with the Spokane that was never presented to Congress.
Despite not participating in the initial treaty signings, the Spokane people maintained their distinct identity and connection to their traditional lands. However, the relentless pressure from settlers and the diminishing resources due to the depletion of salmon runs and the destruction of buffalo herds ultimately led to the establishment of the Spokane Indian Reservation in 1881 through an executive order.
The establishment of the Spokane Indian Reservation was not a smooth or straightforward process. Two previous presidential executive orders had attempted to establish a reservation that included the Colville, Kalispel, Spokane, and Coeur d’Alene tribes. The first reservation was found to be too large and included white settlers. The second, meant to create a new reservation for the Colville tribe, required the Spokane to leave their traditional area of occupancy. The Spokane wanted to remain in their own country along the Spokane River, and refused to remove to the newly created reservation.
Even after the reservation was established, challenges persisted. The General Allotment Act of 1887, also known as the Dawes Act, aimed to dismantle tribal land ownership and assimilate Native Americans into mainstream society. This policy threatened to further erode the Spokane’s land base and cultural identity. Although the law was delayed, the Northwest Indian Commission was created specifically to meet with the Upper and Middle Spokane. Eventually the Dawes Act was implemented.
Governance and Self-Determination
The Spokane Indian Reservation is governed by the Spokane Tribe of Indians, a federally recognized sovereign nation. The tribe operates under a constitution adopted in 1951, following the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, which aimed to reverse the detrimental effects of the Dawes Act.
The tribal government is led by a five-member Tribal Business Council, elected by the tribal membership every three years. The Tribal Business Council is responsible for making decisions that affect the entire tribal population and future generations. The tribal government has evolved into an effective organization with over 400 employees, managing a wide range of programs and services for the tribal community.
The Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975 marked a significant turning point in the relationship between the federal government and tribal nations. This act reaffirmed the authority of tribal governments and recognized their right to self-governance. The Spokane Tribe has actively embraced self-determination, entering into numerous "638 contracts" with federal agencies to administer federally funded programs, particularly in health and human services and transportation. This allows the tribe to tailor programs to meet the specific needs of its community, promoting greater efficiency and effectiveness.
Economy and Development
For many years, the Spokane Indian Reservation faced significant socioeconomic challenges, including high rates of poverty and unemployment. However, the tribe has made significant strides in economic development in recent decades.
The establishment of tribal casinos in Chewelah and Two Rivers has been a major catalyst for economic growth. These casinos have created jobs, generated revenue, and boosted the local economy. The tribe also operates other enterprises, including SpoKo Fuel stations and the Spokane Tribal Water Laboratory.
These enterprises provide valuable employment opportunities for tribal members and contribute to the overall economic well-being of the Spokane Indian Reservation.
Population and Demographics
According to the 2010 Census, the population of the Spokane Indian Reservation was 2,094, representing 4.80% of the total population of Stevens County, Washington. The majority of the population identified as American Indian or Alaska Native (AIAN), with a significant percentage identifying as White or as Two or More Races.
The Spokane Tribe also monitors its own enrollment. Tribal enrollment reports that in 2010, tribal membership was 2,696 for both on- and off- reservation.
The Spokane Indian Reservation has a relatively young population, with a significant percentage of individuals under the age of 20. However, there is also a trend of young adults leaving the reservation in search of employment opportunities, resulting in an aging population.
Education is a priority for the Spokane Tribe. A significant percentage of residents have graduated from high school, and many have pursued higher education. However, there is still a gap in educational attainment compared to the neighboring counties. The Spokane Tribal College in Wellpinit offers associate’s degrees, providing access to higher education for tribal members.
Cultural Preservation
The Spokane Tribe of Indians is deeply committed to preserving its cultural heritage. Despite historical challenges, including forced assimilation and the suppression of traditional practices, the tribe has worked diligently to revitalize its language, traditions, and values.
The tribe’s Cultural Preservation Office and Tribal Historic Preservation Officer play a crucial role in protecting archaeological sites and cultural resources, particularly along Lake Roosevelt and the Little Spokane River. The tribe also actively manages its natural resources through programs such as the Lake Roosevelt Fisheries Evaluation and Monitoring Program and a large forestry department.
Language revitalization is a key focus, with children learning the Spokane language, a Salish dialect, from a young age. The tribe also hosts an annual Labor Day Powwow in Wellpinit, a vibrant celebration of Spokane culture featuring traditional drum songs, dances, and stick games.
Community and Kinship
The Spokane Tribe places a high value on extended family and community. Strong kinship ties bind tribal members together, and it is common for families to provide lifelong support for their children and grandchildren. The concept of extended family extends to neighboring tribes, such as the Kalispel, Colville, and Coeur d’Alene, reflecting the interconnectedness of the region’s indigenous communities.
Spokane Tribal Enrollment
The population of the Spokane Indian Tribe is determined by tribal policy rather than geographic location. Generally speaking, this means members need to have a blood quantum equal to or greater than 25 percent of Spokane blood to qualify.
Conclusion
The Spokane Indian Reservation stands as a testament to the resilience, strength, and cultural richness of the Spokane people. Despite facing historical injustices and ongoing challenges, the tribe has persevered, embracing self-determination, fostering economic development, and prioritizing cultural preservation. As the Spokane Tribe continues to navigate the complexities of the 21st century, its commitment to its people, its land, and its cultural heritage will guide its path toward a brighter future.