The Pueblo of Laguna, a vibrant and historically rich community, is located in the heart of central New Mexico. Situated approximately 42 miles west of Albuquerque along Interstate 40, the Pueblo is composed of six principal villages: Laguna, Mesita, Paguate, Seama, Paraje, and Encinal. The landscape surrounding these villages is defined by the Rio San Jose river basin, which also encompasses the neighboring Acoma Pueblo. The Rio San Jose eventually converges with the Rio Puerco near the southeastern boundary of the Laguna Reservation, contributing to the region’s unique ecosystem.
A Name Rooted in the Land
The official tribal name, Pueblo of Laguna, reflects the deep connection between the people and their environment. The traditional name, Kawaik, translates to "lake," a testament to a once-expansive body of water that supported a diverse array of waterfowl, including ducks, geese, and swans. While the laguna itself has diminished in size over time, its historical significance remains embedded in the Pueblo’s identity. The Spanish term "Laguna," meaning "lake," further reinforces this association, referencing a large pond near the main village. The term "pueblo," derived from the Spanish word for "village," describes both the distinctive architectural style of the Southwest Indians – multi-storied adobe structures – and the people who inhabit them. The keyword Pueblo of Laguna speaks to the essence of this community.
Location and Territory
The Pueblo of Laguna’s territory spans across 528,079 acres, encompassing portions of Cibola, Valencia, Bernalillo, and Sandoval counties in New Mexico. In addition to the six primary villages, there are two outlying settlements located in Gallup and Casa Blanca, New Mexico, further extending the Pueblo’s reach. The tribal headquarters are centrally located within Laguna Pueblo itself.
A Legacy of Resilience: History and Origins
The history of the Pueblo of Laguna is deeply intertwined with that of other Puebloan peoples in the Southwest. The Pueblo people are believed to be descendants of the ancient Anasazi, and possibly the Mogollon and other ancient peoples, though the specific origins of the Keresan peoples remain a subject of scholarly inquiry. These ancestral groups were pioneers in architecture, agriculture, pottery, and basketry, skills that were passed down through generations.
The development of effective agricultural practices and food storage techniques allowed for larger population groups to thrive. This relative stability fostered a flourishing of religious practices, artistic expression, and craftsmanship.
In the 13th century, the Anasazi abandoned their traditional canyon homelands due to a combination of climatic changes and social unrest. This led to a period of migration, followed by a gradual resurgence of their culture in the form of the historic pueblos.
Laguna and Acoma Pueblos share a unique historical trajectory, with evidence suggesting continuous habitation in the region since at least 3000 B.C.E. Oral traditions link their ancestors to Mesa Verde, highlighting a close connection, if not an identical prehistory, between the two Pueblos. The keyword Pueblo of Laguna can also be traced back to a long history of resilience.
Cultural Identity and Governance
The Laguna people maintain a strong cultural identity, rooted in their Keresan language and traditions. The Keres language is a language isolate, meaning it is not demonstrably related to any other known language family. It is spoken in a number of dialects across the Keres Pueblos of New Mexico, and the Laguna dialect is classified as a Western Dialect.
The Pueblo of Laguna’s government is a blend of traditional indigenous structures and elements introduced by Spanish colonization. Indigenous governance included the cacique, also known as the "prayer stick holder," who served as both the overall leader and religious figure, reflecting the theocratic nature of Pueblo government. Other traditional officials included the "outside chief," war captains, and hunt chief.
The Spanish authorities imposed a parallel system of officials, appointed by the religious hierarchy, who dealt with external and church matters. These included a governor, two lieutenant governors, capitanes, and fiscales.
The All Indian Pueblo Council, dating back to 1598, was revived in the 20th century as a means of collective representation and advocacy for Pueblo interests. The council consists of two members from each of the six villages, totaling 12, along with executive officers. These executive officers include a Governor, 1st and 2nd Lieutenant Governors, Head Fiscale, First and Second Fiscales, Secretary, Treasurer, and Interpreter.
Clans and Social Structure
The Pueblo of Laguna recognizes seven matrilineal clans, which play a significant role in marriage regulations and other social activities. Historically, the clans also held ownership of farmland, underscoring their importance in the Pueblo’s economic and social fabric.
Treaties, Recognition, and Population
Unlike many other Native American tribes, the Pueblo tribes, including Laguna, did not sign treaties with the United States government. However, the Pueblo of Laguna is a federally recognized tribe, acknowledging its sovereignty and government-to-government relationship with the United States.
The population of the Pueblo of Laguna has fluctuated throughout history. In 1700, the population was estimated at around 330 people in the main pueblo, with an additional 150 in nearby villages. By 1990, the population on the reservation had grown to approximately 3,600, with a similar number living off-reservation. Today, the tribe boasts over 7,000 enrolled members.
Enrollment Requirements
The Pueblo of Laguna has specific enrollment requirements to maintain its membership. Individuals with at least one-fourth (1/4) Laguna Indian blood are eligible for Regular Membership, with no time frame for application. Naturalization Membership is available to those with at least one-half (1/2) degree of Indian blood from federally recognized tribes, including at least one-eighth (1/8) degree of Laguna Indian blood. In-laws married to tribal members with at least one-half (1/2) degree of Indian blood from a federally recognized tribe can also apply. Individuals who previously relinquished their membership may also be eligible for naturalization. Naturalization applicants aged 18 or older are subject to a five-year probationary period, reporting to their respective Village Officials, before becoming fully naturalized members. While naturalized members do not currently receive the same tribal benefits as regular members, they are eligible for Indian Health Service and other government services. The keyword Pueblo of Laguna also describes its complex tribal enrollment requirements.
Economy and Development
The Pueblo of Laguna has a diverse economy that blends traditional practices with modern enterprises. Agriculture and livestock herding remain important, alongside wage employment at a nearby electronics factory, commercial centers, and tribally and government-funded programs. The Pueblo is considered relatively wealthy and highly acculturated, with many residents living in new or remodeled homes.
The Pueblo owns significant natural resources, including coal, natural gas, oil, and uranium. It operates a resort casino with hotels and restaurants, generating revenue for the tribe.
The Laguna Development Corporation (LDC), established in 1998, is a wholly-owned subsidiary of the Pueblo of Laguna. It manages the tribe’s retail outlets, including travel centers, a supermarket, a convenience store, an RV park, an arcade, a Superette, and three casinos. LDC also provides essential services to local tribal communities.
Laguna Construction Company, another tribally owned enterprise, has been a major U.S. contractor in Iraq, securing reconstruction contracts worth over $300 million since 2004. Laguna Industries, Inc., with offices in New Mexico, Texas, Iraq, and Jordan, further contributes to the Pueblo’s economic diversification.
However, the Pueblo’s economic history has also been marked by environmental challenges. Uranium mining by the Anaconda Mineral Company from 1953 to 1982 provided numerous jobs but also resulted in radioactive contamination of groundwater and rising cancer rates.
Religion and Spirituality
Traditional Pueblo culture views religion as inseparable from daily life. Harmony with nature is a central tenet of the Pueblo worldview. The sun is revered as the representative of the Creator, and sacred mountains in each direction, along with the sun and earth, define and balance the Pueblo world.
Many religious ceremonies revolve around ensuring adequate rainfall, invoking the power of katsinas, sacred beings who reside in mountains and holy places, through ritual and dance. At Laguna, all boys were traditionally initiated into the katsina society. The Pueblo historically featured two above-ground kivas, religious chambers symbolizing the place of original emergence into this world.
The Pueblo’s social structure emphasizes balanced, reciprocal relationships that connect people with each other, the natural world, and time itself. The religious leader, or cacique, is responsible for observing the sun and determining the dates of ceremonies.
Laguna ceremonialism was traditionally managed by shamans and medicine societies, each with specialized roles, who participated in various ceremonies. Important ceremonies included those for the winter solstice, fertility, hunting success, war, precipitation, and healing.
While many Pueblo Indians identify as Catholic, they often blend elements of Catholicism with their traditional beliefs. Since the 1970s, the Pueblo has focused on maintaining its culture through control of schools, and Indian Health Service hospitals often collaborate with native healers. The Lagunas did not replace their religious hierarchy after a schism in the 1870s, but there is growing interest in ceremonialism, and a modern kiva has been built.
Contemporary Life
The Pueblo of Laguna continues to thrive as a vibrant community, balancing its rich cultural heritage with the challenges and opportunities of the modern world. The people of Laguna remain deeply connected to their land, traditions, and language, ensuring the preservation of their unique identity for generations to come.