Unbowed and Unbroken: The Multifaceted Resistance of Native Americans in the 19th Century
The 19th century in North America was a relentless tide of westward expansion, driven by the ideology of Manifest Destiny and the insatiable hunger for land and resources. For the Indigenous peoples who had inhabited these lands for millennia, it was an era of unprecedented existential threat, marked by forced removals, broken treaties, and genocidal policies. Yet, to view Native Americans merely as passive victims is to profoundly misunderstand their history. Throughout this tumultuous century, Indigenous nations and communities employed a remarkable array of resistance strategies – military, diplomatic, cultural, and spiritual – demonstrating an unyielding will to survive, preserve their sovereignty, and protect their way of life.
This was not a monolithic struggle, but a kaleidoscope of resistance, shaped by the distinct cultures, geographies, and political realities of hundreds of diverse nations. From the dense forests of the East to the vast plains and the arid deserts of the Southwest, Indigenous peoples adapted, innovated, and fought back with courage, ingenuity, and a profound connection to their ancestral lands.
The Battlefield as a Last Stand: Armed Resistance
Perhaps the most recognized form of Native American resistance was armed conflict. Faced with the encroachment of settlers, the U.S. Army, and the relentless pressure of a rapidly expanding nation, many tribes chose to defend their homelands through military force. These weren’t random acts of violence but often highly organized, strategic campaigns aimed at protecting territory, disrupting supply lines, or punishing treaty violations.
The Plains Wars stand as a stark testament to this military resistance. The Lakota, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Comanche, and other nations, masters of horsemanship and guerrilla warfare, effectively countered the U.S. Army for decades. Figures like Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse of the Lakota became legendary for their leadership and tactical brilliance. The Battle of Little Bighorn (1876), where a coalition of Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors decisively defeated Lieutenant Colonel George Custer’s 7th Cavalry, remains one of the most iconic moments of Native American triumph. It was a stunning victory, born of superior knowledge of the terrain, strategic positioning, and the unified resolve of the warriors. Sitting Bull, a Hunkpapa Lakota holy man and chief, famously articulated the spirit of resistance, stating, "Let us put our minds together to see what life we can make for our children."
Another significant example was Red Cloud’s War (1866-1868), where the Oglala Lakota, led by Red Cloud, successfully fought to close the Bozeman Trail and force the U.S. government to abandon its forts in the Powder River Country. The subsequent Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) was a rare instance where the U.S. government conceded to Native American demands, a direct result of effective military pressure.
In the Southwest, the Apache Wars saw leaders like Geronimo and Cochise lead their people in prolonged campaigns against both Mexican and U.S. forces. Their intimate knowledge of the rugged desert terrain allowed them to conduct devastating raids and evade capture for years, embodying a fierce determination to maintain their freedom. Geronimo’s surrender in 1886 is often cited as the end of the Indian Wars, marking a tragic closing chapter to overt military resistance.
The Nez Perce War of 1877 offered another poignant example. Led by Chief Joseph, the Nez Perce embarked on an epic 1,700-mile flight towards Canada, seeking refuge from forced removal. Their strategic retreats, defensive actions, and disciplined movement under extreme duress garnered widespread admiration, even from their pursuers. Chief Joseph’s powerful surrender speech – "From where the sun now stands, I will fight no more forever" – encapsulated the profound weariness and sorrow of a people who had fought valiantly but were ultimately overwhelmed by superior numbers and resources.
The Pen and the Voice: Diplomatic and Legal Resistance
Beyond the battlefield, Native nations often engaged in sophisticated diplomatic and legal resistance, attempting to leverage existing U.S. law and international principles to protect their sovereignty. This strategy was particularly prominent among the "Five Civilized Tribes" of the Southeast – the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole – who had adopted many aspects of Euro-American political and economic systems.
The Cherokee Nation stands as a prime example. They developed a written constitution, established a republican government, and even created their own written language (the Sequoyah Syllabary, an ingenious achievement that allowed widespread literacy among the Cherokee). When faced with forced removal under President Andrew Jackson’s Indian Removal Act, the Cherokee, led by Principal Chief John Ross, pursued legal recourse. They took their case all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court.
In Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the Supreme Court, under Chief Justice John Marshall, ruled that the Cherokee Nation was a sovereign entity and that Georgia had no right to impose its laws on Cherokee lands. Marshall famously stated that the Cherokee "form a distinct community, occupying its own territory, with boundaries accurately described, in which the laws of Georgia can have no force." This was a monumental legal victory, affirming Native American sovereignty. However, President Jackson famously defied the ruling, allegedly stating, "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it." The subsequent Trail of Tears underscored the tragic reality that legal victories alone could not withstand the political will of a determined expansionist government.
Despite this ultimate failure, the Cherokee’s efforts demonstrated a profound understanding of the U.S. legal system and a sophisticated strategy to defend their rights through the very institutions of their oppressors. Similar diplomatic efforts involved numerous treaty negotiations, where Native leaders, often fluent in multiple languages, meticulously argued for their people’s rights, land, and cultural integrity, even when the U.S. government routinely abrogated those agreements.
The Heart of Identity: Cultural and Spiritual Resistance
Perhaps the most enduring and profound forms of resistance were cultural and spiritual. When military and political avenues were exhausted or denied, the maintenance of traditional languages, ceremonies, spiritual beliefs, and communal lifeways became acts of profound defiance. This was a resistance against assimilation, against the erasure of identity.
The Ghost Dance movement of the late 1880s is a powerful illustration of spiritual resistance. Initiated by the Paiute prophet Wovoka, the Ghost Dance promised a renewal of the Earth, the return of ancestors, the disappearance of white settlers, and a return to traditional ways, all through a sacred dance and spiritual devotion. It spread rapidly among numerous Plains tribes, offering hope and a sense of collective power in the face of despair. Adherents believed that wearing specially painted Ghost Dance shirts would make them impervious to bullets, a testament to the depth of their faith and their desire for liberation.
The U.S. government, viewing the movement as a dangerous incitement to rebellion, moved to suppress it. This fear culminated in the tragic Wounded Knee Massacre (1890), where U.S. troops killed hundreds of unarmed Lakota men, women, and children, effectively crushing the Ghost Dance movement. Yet, even in its violent suppression, the Ghost Dance demonstrated the profound resilience of Indigenous spirituality and the desperate search for a path to cultural survival.
Beyond such dramatic movements, everyday acts of cultural preservation – telling stories, teaching languages, practicing ceremonies in secret, maintaining kinship structures, and passing down traditional knowledge – were vital forms of resistance. They ensured that despite immense pressure to assimilate into mainstream American society, Indigenous identities persisted, forming the bedrock for future resurgence.
Economic and Adaptive Resistance
Native Americans also engaged in economic and adaptive resistance. Some tribes, like certain groups of the Lakota and Apache, refused to settle on reservations, choosing instead to "go into the hills" or continue their nomadic hunting lifestyle for as long as possible, resisting the imposed sedentary agricultural model. Others, once confined to reservations, creatively adapted. They learned new farming techniques, engaged in cattle ranching, or developed new craft economies to maintain a degree of self-sufficiency and resist total dependence on government rations. The Navajo, for instance, expanded their sheep herding and weaving traditions into a significant economic enterprise, demonstrating adaptive resilience.
The Unbroken Spirit
By the close of the 19th century, the landscape of Native American life had been irrevocably altered. Vast territories were lost, populations decimated by disease and warfare, and traditional lifeways severely disrupted. Yet, the history of this period is not solely one of defeat. It is also a testament to an astonishing, multifaceted, and unyielding resistance.
From the thunder of hooves at Little Bighorn to the measured arguments in the Supreme Court, from the sacred movements of the Ghost Dance to the quiet determination of a grandmother teaching her grandchild an ancestral language, Native Americans fought for their existence with every tool at their disposal. Their strategies, though often overwhelmed by the sheer force of U.S. expansion, laid the groundwork for future generations to continue the fight for self-determination, cultural revitalization, and justice. The 19th-century resistance was not an end, but a crucial chapter in an ongoing story of survival, resilience, and the enduring spirit of Indigenous peoples.
