Manuelito, a name resonating with strength, resilience, and a fierce dedication to his people, stands as a pivotal figure in Navajo history. Born around 1818 and passing away in 1893, Manuelito, Navajo Chief, was a prominent war leader of the Diné (Navajo) people, particularly during the tumultuous period encompassing the Long Walk. His leadership extended both before and after this devastating event, marking him as a constant force in the face of immense adversity.
The name "Manuelito" itself, meaning "Little Manuel" in Spanish, hints at the complex historical interactions between the Navajo and Spanish cultures. However, within his own community, he was known by a multitude of names, each reflecting a different aspect of his character and accomplishments. These names were not merely labels, but rather earned titles that spoke to his spiritual significance, familial connections, and martial prowess.
Among these names was Ashkii Diyinii (Holy Boy), suggesting a spiritual connection or perhaps a role in ceremonies during his younger years. Dahaana Baadaaní (Son-in-Law of Late Texan) points to a specific familial tie, likely through marriage, and offers a glimpse into the complex web of relationships that defined Navajo society. He was also known as Hastiin Ch’il Haajiní ("Black Weeds"), a name whose meaning might relate to a specific location associated with him or perhaps to a characteristic of his appearance or demeanor. Most significantly, he was referred to as Nabááh Jiłtʼaa (War Chief, or Warrior Grabbed Enemy), a testament to his role as a military leader and his bravery in battle. After his first battle at the young age of 17, he earned the name Hashkeh Naabaah, meaning Angry Warrior, a name that would stick with him throughout his life, reflecting his fiery spirit and unwavering determination to defend his people.
Outside of the Navajo community, he was also known by the nickname "Bullet Hole," possibly referencing an incident in battle. Furthermore, historical records sometimes list his name as Manuelita or Manuelito Segundo, demonstrating the varied and often inaccurate ways in which non-Navajo individuals recorded and understood Navajo names.
Manuelito, Navajo Chief, was born into the Bit’aa’nii clan, also known as the Folded Arms People Clan, near the area of Bear’s Ears in southeastern Utah. This region, with its distinctive geological formations, held significance for the Navajo people and served as part of their ancestral homeland. From a young age, Manuelito displayed qualities that set him apart. By the age of 16, he was already an imposing figure, standing over six feet tall with a strong, athletic build. His physical prowess was matched by a restless and aggressive spirit, eager to prove himself as a warrior.
A pivotal moment in his early life was his marriage to a daughter of Narbona, a renowned and influential Navajo headman. This union brought Manuelito into Narbona’s camp, located near the Chuska Mountains, a region known for its rich resources and strategic importance. Narbona’s reputation as a wealthy and powerful leader deeply impressed Manuelito, who admired his father-in-law’s fearlessness and strategic acumen. However, Narbona also attempted to instill in Manuelito the value of peace, seeking to balance his warrior instincts with a sense of diplomacy and understanding.
Manuelito spent his youth honing his skills as a warrior, practicing archery, competing in foot races, and engaging in wrestling matches. His competitive spirit drove him to excel in these activities, consistently outperforming his peers. He was known for his meticulous appearance, dressing in well-fitting buckskins and adorned with finely woven blankets, reflecting the importance of craftsmanship and personal presentation within Navajo culture. He eagerly anticipated his first opportunity to prove himself in battle, a chance that would soon arrive.
In the winter of 1835, word reached the Navajo that a force of 1,000 Mexicans from New Mexico was advancing to attack. This marked Manuelito’s entry into the world of warfare. At the age of seventeen, he participated in the defense of his people, earning the name Hashkeh Naabaah, Angry Warrior. This initial experience solidified his commitment to defending the Navajo against external threats.
In the years that followed, Manuelito, Navajo Chief, led numerous raiding parties, often joining forces with other prominent leaders such as Ganado Mucho and Barboncito. These raids targeted not only the Mexicans, whom the Navajo viewed as invaders, but also other tribes, including the Hopis, Pueblos, Utes, Comanches, and Apaches. The primary objectives of these raids were to acquire essential resources, such as food supplies and livestock. Sadly, the raids also involved the capture of women and children, who were often taken as slaves. Manuelito himself eventually married Juanita, one of his Mexican slaves, highlighting the complex and often brutal realities of intertribal and intercultural conflict.
By 1846, when the United States gained control of New Mexico Territory, Manuelito had risen to prominence as a recognized naat’aani (leader) within the Navajo community. He had established a network of sub-chiefs, each specializing in different aspects of warfare, reflecting a sophisticated organizational structure. Manuelito became renowned for his clever war strategies, demonstrating a keen understanding of terrain, logistics, and enemy tactics. He often clashed with elders, including his father-in-law Narbona, who advocated for peace, stubbornly resisting any attempts at negotiation or compromise.
Despite his initial resistance, Manuelito was eventually persuaded that the relentless raids by the Mexicans would cease under American rule. At the age of 28, he signed the peace treaty at Bear Springs, along with thirteen other Navajo leaders, most of whom were significantly older than him. However, this fragile peace would be shattered by subsequent events.
The murder of Narbona by American soldiers in 1849 ignited a renewed sense of anger and resentment in Manuelito. He vowed to drive all white men from Navajo country, vehemently opposing any further attempts at peaceful relations. During one of his many skirmishes with his enemies, he was shot in the chest and nearly died. A captive Mexican blacksmith managed to remove the lead ball, but Manuelito suffered a severe infection. Although he survived, the wound left a large scar, a physical reminder of his unwavering commitment to defending his people.
Various accounts exist regarding the circumstances surrounding this incident. Some stories claim that Comanches had stolen his prized horse, Racer, and that Manuelito was shot while attempting to recover it. Another version tells of a horse race where Manuelito was cheated out of victory when someone, allegedly soldiers, cut the reins. When Manuelito sought to reclaim his winnings, the soldiers opened fire, killing 15 Navajos. Regardless of the specific details, these stories highlight the constant tensions and violent encounters that characterized this period.
The 1850s and 1860s were remembered by the Navajo people as a time of immense hardship and uncertainty, a period referred to as Nahonzoodaa (the fearing time). Escalating raids, kidnappings, and killings among the Navajos, other tribes, and the Mexicans prompted increasing pressure on the American government from settlers demanding an end to the violence.
The situation reached a breaking point at Fort Defiance when Major Thomas H. Brooks ordered Manuelito, Navajo Chief, to remove his livestock from a nearby "hay camp." Manuelito refused, asserting his ownership of the land and its resources, famously stating, "The water there is mine, not yours, and the same with the grass. Even the ground it grows from belongs to me, not to you. I will not let you have these things." This defiant act of resistance led to the troops slaughtering his livestock, marking the beginning of open warfare.
The army launched an attack on Manuelito’s camp on the Little Colorado River, with Zuni warriors joining forces to burn his hogans and fields. Although Manuelito managed to escape, the attack marked a significant escalation of the conflict. In February 1860, Manuelito led 500 warriors in an attack on Fort Defiance, but they were forced to retreat under heavy fire. In April, he and Barboncito returned with 1,000 warriors, but were once again driven back into the mountains.
The army intensified its campaign against the Navajos, destroying fields, burning homes, and confiscating livestock. Furthermore, the Navajos faced attacks from multiple directions, with Mexicans and Utes escalating their raids. While some Navajo leaders began to advocate for peace, Manuelito, Navajo Chief, remained steadfast in his refusal to surrender.
The American Civil War provided a brief respite from the full force of the U.S. military, but chaos continued to reign in Navajoland as the fighting spiraled out of control. In 1863, Kit Carson was commissioned to relocate the Navajo people to Fort Sumner (Bosque Redondo) in New Mexico, a journey of 175 miles southwest of Santa Fe.
Carson implemented a "scorched earth" policy, destroying hogans, fields, and peach trees, and rounding up livestock. Faced with starvation, many Navajos were forced to surrender. By 1865, the majority of the Navajo people had been forced to endure the Long Walk to Bosque Redondo, where many perished due to disease, starvation, and harsh conditions. A few small bands remained in hiding near Navajo Mountain, and Manuelito and his followers sought refuge in the Grand Canyon.
General Carlton, in command of the Navajo relocation, sent a messenger demanding Manuelito’s surrender. From his camp near the Little Colorado, Manuelito responded that he would not leave his country, that he was doing no harm to anyone, and that he intended to die there. He declared that he had no fears and would not run away.
Ultimately, a Ute raid devastated Manuelito’s band, decimating their livestock and scattering his followers. Despite this setback, Manuelito maintained his defiance, declaring that his mother and his god lived in the west and that he would not abandon them. He also invoked a tradition that his people should never cross the Rio Grande, the Rio San Juan, or the Rio Colorado.
Starvation and constant harassment eventually forced Manuelito and his band to surrender and join the other Navajos at Bosque Redondo. However, he repeatedly left the reservation, only to return due to the same dire circumstances.
After the Civil War, the U.S. government began to acknowledge the failure of the Bosque Redondo experiment. An Indian Peace Commission was formed, and Manuelito was among those who traveled to Washington D.C. to meet with President Andrew Jackson.
When the Navajo people were finally allowed to return to their homeland, Manuelito, Navajo Chief, settled with his family near Tohatchi. He was appointed as the main headman of the eastern side of the Reservation. He continued to advocate for the expansion of the reservation, even making another trip to Washington D.C. to meet with Ulysses S. Grant in 1876.
The years that followed were challenging as the Navajos struggled to adapt to life without the old ways of raiding. Drought and starvation forced some to resort to stealing from their neighbors. Ironically, Manuelito became a Navajo policeman, rounding up stolen animals and returning them to their owners, although he refused to identify the thieves.
As his wealth increased, Manuelito’s militant stance softened. He acquired wagons and began transporting goods to and from the railway. He embraced adaptation as a means of survival and prosperity. His domain included 10 to 20 families who farmed a large irrigated parcel of land.
Manuelito famously stated, "My grandchild, the whites have many things which we Navajos need. But we cannot get them. It is as though the whites were in a grassy canyon and there they have wagons, plows, and plenty of food. We Navajos are up on a dry mesa. We can hear them talking but we cannot get to them. My grandchild, education is the ladder. Tell our people to take it."
Despite his advocacy for education, Manuelito experienced profound tragedy when all three of his sons and a nephew, whom he had sent to the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania, died of tuberculosis. Bitter and heartbroken, he always regretted sending them away, but he ultimately remained supportive of education, and Tohatchi became the site of one of the first schools in the region.
The issue of slavery and captives remained unresolved, with both Mexicans and Navajos claiming family members held by the other side. In 1884, the Indian agent John Bowman demanded that Manuelito free his slaves. Bowman was surprised when Manuelito informed them that they were free to leave, but that they were considered members of his family. All of them, including his wife Juanita, chose to remain with him.
Manuelito, Navajo Chief, symbolized the Navajo resistance. He refused to sign treaty after treaty, and fought many battles. His surrender and presence at Bosque Redondo made it possible for him to participate in the negotiations for the release and return of his people to their homeland. He attempted to help his people find a new way of life, while also remaining true to their traditions.
Unfortunately, the new way of life included alcohol, and there were stories of binges and wild antics. In the end, his mixing of traditions may have contributed to his death. After contracting measles, a combination of sweat baths and whiskey led to pneumonia, and in 1893, Manuelito lost his final battle.
Manuelito was a prominent Navajo leader who rallied his nation against the oppression of the United States military. After being relocated to Bosque Redondo, Manuelito was among the leaders who signed the 1868 treaty, ending a period of imprisonment in United States government internment camps and establishing a reservation for the Navajo. Manuelito was also an advocate for education for Navajo children.