A Sacred Enduring Flame: The Long History of Native American Religious Suppression
The spiritual landscape of North America, for millennia, has been as diverse and intricate as its physical geography. From the vast plains to the dense forests, the towering mountains to the arid deserts, Indigenous peoples cultivated spiritual traditions deeply interwoven with their land, community, and way of life. These practices, far from being mere rituals, constituted the very fabric of identity, governance, healing, and environmental stewardship. Yet, with the arrival of European colonists, this vibrant spiritual tapestry faced a relentless and systematic assault, marking centuries of religious suppression that sought to extinguish the sacred flame of Native American belief.
The roots of this suppression run deep into the colonial era, fueled by a potent mix of religious fervor, economic ambition, and a self-serving doctrine of cultural superiority. European powers, predominantly Christian, viewed Indigenous spiritual practices as "pagan," "savage," or "demonic," a direct threat to their civilizing mission and their claim to the land. Spanish missionaries, for instance, implemented the reducción system, forcibly relocating Native populations into mission communities where traditional ceremonies were banned, sacred objects destroyed, and conversion to Catholicism became a condition for survival. The French, while sometimes more diplomatically engaging with certain tribes, also saw conversion as a primary goal, sending Jesuit priests deep into Indigenous territories. The British, though perhaps less overtly evangelical than their counterparts in the early stages, soon adopted similar policies, framing Native religions as a justification for land seizure and the subjugation of "heathen" peoples.
With the formation of the United States and the expansionist ideology of Manifest Destiny, religious suppression intensified. The concept of "civilizing" Native Americans became a cornerstone of federal policy, intricately linked to land acquisition and cultural assimilation. Early treaties often included provisions for missionary schools, laying the groundwork for the systematic dismantling of Indigenous spiritual education. As tribes were forcibly removed from their ancestral lands – a tragic saga epitomized by the Trail of Tears – they were simultaneously severed from the sacred sites, plants, and ceremonial spaces that were indispensable to their religious practices. The land itself was, and remains, a living prayer book for many Native nations; its loss was a profound spiritual dislocation.
The late 19th and early 20th centuries marked the nadir of religious freedom for Native Americans, a period of overt and brutal federal prohibition. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), established in 1824, became a primary instrument of this suppression. BIA agents on reservations were given broad powers to outlaw traditional ceremonies, dances, and spiritual gatherings, often under the guise of promoting "progress" and "Christianity."
One of the most infamous examples is the outright ban on the Ghost Dance. This pan-Indian spiritual movement, which emerged in the late 1880s, promised a return to traditional ways and a peaceful removal of white settlers through sacred dances and visions. Terrified by its unifying potential, the U.S. government violently suppressed it, culminating in the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890, where hundreds of unarmed Lakota men, women, and children were slaughtered. The message was clear: spiritual expression, if it challenged colonial authority, would be met with lethal force.
Other vital ceremonies faced similar prohibitions. The Sun Dance, a foundational renewal ceremony for many Plains tribes, was banned for decades, its practitioners often imprisoned or beaten. The Potlatch, a crucial gift-giving ceremony of the Pacific Northwest, central to social, economic, and spiritual life, was outlawed in Canada (1884-1951) and faced significant suppression in the U.S., forcing it underground. "The great difficulty is that we have undertaken to civilize and Christianize the Indian at the same time and by the same methods," observed Commissioner of Indian Affairs John Collier in 1934, acknowledging the intertwining of religious and cultural subjugation. "We have tried to force him to be something that he is not, and to deny him the right to be what he is."
Perhaps the most insidious tool of religious suppression was the Indian Boarding School system. From the late 19th century well into the mid-20th, hundreds of thousands of Native children were forcibly removed from their families and communities and sent to these institutions. The stated goal, famously articulated by Carlisle Indian Industrial School founder Richard Henry Pratt, was to "Kill the Indian, Save the Man." This meant systematically stripping children of their language, traditional clothing, hairstyles, and, most importantly, their spiritual beliefs. Children were punished for speaking their native tongues or practicing any traditional ceremony. They were forced to attend Christian services and taught that their ancestral religions were evil. The trauma inflicted by these schools – physical, emotional, and spiritual – continues to reverberate through Native communities today.
For much of U.S. history, Native American religions were not afforded the protections of the First Amendment, which guarantees freedom of religion. This legal vacuum meant that federal and state governments could freely interfere with or prohibit Indigenous spiritual practices without legal challenge. It wasn’t until the mid-20th century, spurred by the growing Civil Rights Movement and the rise of Native American activism (such as the American Indian Movement, AIM), that a gradual shift began.
A landmark moment arrived with the passage of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA) in 1978. This act declared that it was "the policy of the United States to protect and preserve for American Indians their inherent right of freedom to believe, express, and exercise the traditional religions." While a symbolic victory, AIRFA initially lacked enforcement mechanisms and often proved ineffective in preventing continued infringements, particularly concerning sacred sites and access to traditional medicines. For example, the use of peyote, central to the Native American Church, remained under threat due to drug laws, a situation only partially resolved by amendments to AIRFA in 1994, which explicitly protected its ceremonial use.
Further legislative efforts sought to address specific grievances. The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990 provided a mechanism for the return of human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, and objects of cultural patrimony to lineal descendants and culturally affiliated Native American tribes. This was a crucial step in healing historical wounds and reclaiming spiritual heritage. The Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) of 1993, while not specific to Native Americans, provided a higher standard for government actions that burden religious exercise, though its application to Native American cases has been complex and contested, especially after the Supreme Court’s Employment Division v. Smith (1990) ruling.
Despite these legislative advancements, the struggle for full religious freedom for Native Americans continues in the 21st century. The protection of sacred sites remains a critical and ongoing battle. Places like Bears Ears National Monument, Oak Flat (Apache Leap), and Mauna Kea are not just natural landscapes; they are living churches, places of prayer, healing, and cultural identity. The Dakota Access Pipeline protests at Standing Rock in 2016-2017 brought global attention to the destruction of sacred burial grounds and the desecration of culturally significant lands by industrial development, illustrating the persistent conflict between economic interests and Indigenous spiritual rights.
Cultural appropriation also poses a contemporary challenge, where non-Native individuals and groups adopt and commercialize Indigenous spiritual practices, symbols, and ceremonies without understanding or respecting their sacred context, often trivializing or profiting from what was once suppressed.
The history of Native American religious suppression is a stark reminder of the devastating consequences of cultural and religious intolerance. It is a chronicle of forced conversions, bans on sacred ceremonies, the traumatic legacy of boarding schools, and the ongoing fight to protect ancestral lands. Yet, it is also a testament to the extraordinary resilience, adaptability, and unwavering spirit of Indigenous peoples. Against all odds, the sacred flame has not been extinguished. Native American spiritual traditions, though scarred, continue to thrive, revitalize, and adapt, carried forward by generations determined to honor their ancestors, protect their sacred ways, and ensure that their unique spiritual heritage endures for future generations. The journey towards true religious freedom and respect remains an ongoing testament to a sacred enduring flame.
