Zitkala-Ša, meaning "Red Bird" in Lakota, born in 1876 and passing away in 1938, stands as a towering figure in Native American history. Known also by her missionary-given name, Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, she was a woman of remarkable talent and unwavering dedication. A Yankton Dakota Sioux, her life was a tapestry woven with threads of literature, music, education, and relentless political activism. Her story is one of cultural negotiation, resilience, and a lifelong commitment to advocating for the rights and recognition of Native Americans in the face of profound societal challenges. Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, Yankton Sioux Writer and Political Activist left an indelible mark.
Early Life and Education: A Bridge Between Two Worlds
Born on February 22, 1876, at the Yankton Sioux Agency in South Dakota, Zitkala-Ša’s early life was steeped in the traditions and culture of her people. Her mother, Taté Iyúhiwin (translated as Every Wind or Reaches for the Wind), known in English as Ellen Simmons, instilled in her a deep connection to her heritage. Her father, a European-American man named Felker, abandoned the family during her infancy. Thus, Zitkala-Ša, or Red Bird, spent her formative years on the Yankton Reservation, immersed in the ways of her ancestors.
At the age of eight, a pivotal moment arrived when she chose to attend White’s Manual Labor Institute, a Quaker-run boarding school in Wabash, Indiana. This decision, though made with youthful curiosity, marked the beginning of her complex relationship with Western education and assimilation. For three years, she immersed herself in learning to read, write, and play the violin. These skills, acquired through the very system designed to erase her cultural identity, would later become powerful tools in her fight for Native American rights. Her experiences at White’s Manual Labor Institute profoundly shaped her, forming the basis for her later semi-autobiographical work, "The School Days of an Indian Girl," a poignant exploration of the challenges of cultural displacement and identity formation.
After three years away, Zitkala-Ša returned to the Yankton Reservation, reuniting with her mother. However, the prospect of limited opportunities for Native American women, often confined to domestic service within white households, propelled her to seek further education. She made the bold decision to return to White’s Manual Labor Institute, demonstrating a fierce determination to forge her own path.
This time, she pursued her musical talents with even greater fervor, excelling in piano and violin. Her dedication and skill led to her appointment as a music teacher at the institute, following the resignation of the previous instructor. In 1895, Zitkala-Ša earned her first diploma, a testament to her academic achievements. Fueled by ambition, she secured a scholarship to Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana, pursuing higher education at a time when opportunities for women, especially Native American women, were severely limited. She further honed her musical abilities at the Boston Conservatory, expanding her horizons and refining her artistic talents.
During this period of intense study, Zitkala-Ša embarked on a project that would foreshadow her later literary and cultural preservation efforts. She began collecting Native American legends, meticulously translating them first into Latin and then into English, aiming to make them accessible to children. This early endeavor demonstrated her commitment to preserving and sharing the rich oral traditions of her people.
Unfortunately, her academic pursuits were cut short by ill health. Six weeks before graduation in 1897, she was forced to leave Earlham College. Undeterred, she found employment playing the violin with the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston from 1897 to 1899, showcasing her musical prowess and contributing to the vibrant arts scene of the city.
Carlisle and the Seeds of Dissent
In 1899, Zitkala-Ša accepted a position at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania, a decision that would profoundly impact her life and activism. Founded by Colonel Richard Henry Pratt, Carlisle was a flagship institution in the assimilationist movement, aiming to "civilize" Native American children by stripping them of their culture and language and immersing them in Western education and customs.
At Carlisle, Zitkala-Ša taught music and led debates on the treatment of Native Americans, creating a space for critical discourse within the institution. In 1900, she showcased her musical talents at the Paris Exposition, performing with the school’s Carlisle Indian Band. Simultaneously, she began writing articles on Native American life, which were published in prominent national periodicals such as Atlantic Monthly and Harper’s Monthly. These early writings provided a platform for her to share her experiences, perspectives, and critiques of the assimilationist policies that were devastating Native American communities.
However, her time at Carlisle was marked by growing disillusionment. In 1900, Colonel Pratt sent her to the Yankton Reservation to recruit students. What she encountered there deeply disturbed her. She found her mother’s home in disrepair, her brother’s family struggling with poverty, and white settlers encroaching upon lands allotted to the Yankton Dakota under the Dawes Act of 1877. This firsthand observation of the devastating effects of government policies fueled her resentment towards the rigid assimilationist agenda of Carlisle.
Upon returning to the school, Zitkala-Ša confronted Colonel Pratt, expressing her opposition to his program of cultural erasure and the limitations of the curriculum, which prepared students only for menial labor. Her act of defiance led to her dismissal from Carlisle after she published an article in Harper’s Monthly that depicted the profound loss of identity experienced by a Native American boy subjected to the school’s assimilationist education.
Marriage, Family, and Continued Advocacy
Driven by concern for her aging mother and her family’s economic struggles, Zitkala-Ša returned to the Yankton Reservation. She secured a position as a clerk for the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation. While working for the BIA, she continued to collect stories from Native Americans, which she later published in Old Indian Legends.
In 1902, while working for the BIA, she married Captain Raymond Talefase Bonnin, who was one-quarter Yankton Sioux and raised within the Yankton culture. Their union was a testament to their shared commitment to preserving and promoting Native American heritage. Together, they had one son, Raymond Ohiya Bonnin.
Following their marriage, Captain Bonnin was assigned to the Uintah-Ouray Reservation in Utah, where they resided for 14 years. During this time, Zitkala-Ša worked as a teacher for the Indian Service. It was in Utah that she met American professor and composer William F. Hanson, sparking a collaboration that would result in the creation of The Sun Dance Opera. Zitkala-Ša wrote the libretto and songs for the opera, drawing inspiration from sacred Sioux rituals, which the federal government prohibited the Ute from performing on the reservation. She played Sioux melodies on the violin, providing the foundation for Hanson’s musical composition.
The Sun Dance Opera: A Cultural Milestone
The Sun Dance Opera premiered in Utah in 1913, marking a significant milestone in Native American artistic expression. While lead singing roles were filled by non-native performers, the opera featured dancing and some parts performed by the Ute people, providing a platform for their cultural expression. It was the first opera ever to be co-authored by a Native American, solidifying Zitkala-Ša’s legacy as a pioneering artist and cultural ambassador.
In 1938, the New York Light Opera Guild premiered The Sun Dance Opera at The Broadway Theatre as its opera of the year. However, the publicity credited only William F. Hanson as the composer, obscuring Zitkala-Ša’s crucial contribution to the work.
Political Activism: A Lifelong Dedication
Zitkala-Ša’s commitment to Native American rights extended far beyond her artistic endeavors. She was a tireless political activist, dedicating much of her adult life to advocating for the betterment of her people.
In 1911, she joined the Society of American Indians (SAI), an organization comprised of educated Native Americans dedicated to improving the conditions of their communities. The SAI advocated for equal rights for all people and opposed the continuation of the BIA. Zitkala-Ša served as the SAI’s secretary, beginning in 1916. She also edited its journal, American Indian Magazine, from 1918 to 1919, using the platform to raise awareness about the challenges facing Native Americans and to promote their cultural identity.
As secretary for the SAI, Zitkala-Ša corresponded with the BIA, using her position to critique the agency’s policies and practices. She challenged the BIA’s attempts to suppress Native American languages and cultural practices in boarding schools, and she reported instances of abuse resulting from children’s refusal to conform to Christian practices.
Her activism came at a personal cost. In 1916, her husband was dismissed from his BIA office at the Ute reservation. Undeterred, the couple and their son relocated to Washington, D.C., seeking to find allies and amplify their voices.
From Washington, D.C., Zitkala-Ša lectured across the nation on behalf of the SAI, promoting Native American cultural and tribal identity. During the 1920s, she championed a pan-Indian movement, uniting tribes in the cause of lobbying for citizenship rights. The culmination of these efforts was the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, which granted U.S. citizenship to many, though not all, indigenous peoples.
Zitkala-Ša’s influence extended to the General Federation of Women’s Clubs (GFWC), where she created the Indian Welfare Committee in 1924. Through the GFWC, she catalyzed a government investigation into the exploitation of Native Americans in Oklahoma and the attempts to defraud them of their oil-rich lands.
In 1926, she and her husband founded the National Council of American Indians (NCAI), dedicated to uniting tribes throughout the U.S. in the pursuit of full citizenship rights through suffrage. Zitkala-Ša served as president, fundraiser, and speaker for the NCAI from 1926 until her death in 1938.
Legacy and Lasting Impact
Zitkala-Ša died on January 26, 1938, in Washington, D.C., at the age of sixty-one. She is buried under the name Gertrude Simmons Bonnin in Arlington National Cemetery, a testament to her service and dedication to her country, even as she fought for the rights of her people.
Since her death, the University of Nebraska has reissued many of her writings on Native American culture, ensuring that her voice continues to resonate with future generations.
In 1997, she was designated a Women’s History Month Honoree by the National Women’s History Project, recognizing her significant contributions to American history and the fight for social justice.
Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, Yankton Sioux Writer and Political Activist was a complex and multifaceted figure whose life was marked by both triumph and tragedy. Her writings, music, and activism continue to inspire and inform, reminding us of the importance of cultural preservation, social justice, and the power of one individual to make a difference. Her legacy is a testament to the resilience, strength, and enduring spirit of Native American people. Even now Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, Yankton Sioux Writer and Political Activist has many organizations that have been created to honor her and her legacy.
Her commitment to Native American rights extended to women’s rights. Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, Yankton Sioux Writer and Political Activist joined the General Federation of Women’s Clubs in 1921 and was an active member in 1920 in the movement for women’s rights.