For millennia, the Arctic and subarctic regions of the world have been home to resilient and resourceful indigenous populations. These peoples, often referred to as Eskimos, have adapted to the harsh environments of eastern Siberia (Russia), Alaska (United States), Canada, and Greenland. The term "Eskimo" encompasses two primary groups: the Yupik and the Inuit. A closely related third group, the Aleut, shares ancestral ties and cultural similarities. Understanding the Eskimo culture requires exploring their history, languages, traditions, and the nuances of the terminology used to describe them.
Origins and Divergence:
The story of the Eskimo people begins thousands of years ago. Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest Eskimo cultures, known as pre-Dorset cultures, emerged around 5,000 years ago. These cultures appear to have evolved in Alaska, originating from people who practiced the Arctic small tool tradition. These early inhabitants likely migrated from Siberia to Alaska at least 2,000 to 3,000 years earlier, although some theories propose their presence in Alaska could date back even further, perhaps 10,000 to 12,000 years or more. Similar artifacts discovered in Siberia, dating back approximately 18,000 years, support this connection.
Over time, the ancestral Eskimo population diversified. Around 4,000 years ago, the Unangam, also known as Aleut, culture began to distinguish itself, eventually evolving into a separate, non-Eskimo culture. Then, approximately 1,500 to 2,000 years ago, in Northwestern Alaska, two other significant variations emerged. The Inuit language branch became distinct, rapidly spreading across northern Alaska, Canada, and into Greenland within just a few centuries. Simultaneously, the technology associated with the Thule people developed in northwestern Alaska and swiftly disseminated throughout the Eskimo world, though not all groups adopted it universally.
The Two Main Groups: Inuit and Yupik
Today, the two principal groups identified as Eskimos are the Inuit, primarily residing in northern Alaska, Canada, and Greenland, and the Yupik, who inhabit Central Alaska and parts of the Russian Far East.
The Yupik are further divided by language, comprising speakers of four distinct Yupik languages originating from western Alaska, south-central Alaska along the Gulf of Alaska coast, and the Russian Far East. These linguistic variations reflect the geographic separation and unique cultural developments within the Yupik communities.
Terminology: Eskimo, Inuit, and the Politics of Naming
The terminology used to describe these groups is complex and often politically charged. In Alaska, the term "Eskimo" remains in common usage because it inclusively refers to both Yupik and Inupiat peoples. "Inuit," on the other hand, is not widely accepted as a collective term in Alaska and is not specifically used for the Inupiat, who technically are Inuit. There is no universally accepted term, other than Eskimo, that encompasses all Inuit and Yupik peoples.
However, in Canada and Greenland, the term "Eskimo" has largely fallen out of favor. It is often considered pejorative, carrying negative historical connotations. The term "Inuit" has replaced "Eskimo" in most contexts within these regions. The Canadian Constitution Act of 1982 formally recognized the Inuit as a distinct group of aboriginal peoples in Canada, solidifying their identity and rights.
The origin of the word "Eskimo" itself is debated. Two primary etymologies have been proposed, both stemming from the Innu-aimun (Montagnais) language. The most widely accepted theory, proposed by Ives Goddard at the Smithsonian Institution, suggests that "Eskimo" derives from a Montagnais word meaning "snowshoe-netter." However, Jose Mailhot, a Quebec anthropologist and Montagnais speaker, proposed in 1978 that the term means "people who speak a different language."
One of the main reasons the term "Eskimo" is considered derogatory is the perception that it means "eaters of raw meat" in Algonquian languages. While most academic linguists dispute this etymology, the negative association persists, making the term problematic in many contexts.
In 1977, the Inuit Circumpolar Conference, held in Barrow, Alaska, officially adopted "Inuit" as a designation for all Eskimos, regardless of their local preferences. The organization, now known as the Inuit Circumpolar Council, still uses both "Inuit" and "Eskimo" in its official documents.
Local Identities and Self-Designation
While "Inuit" is used broadly in Canada and Greenland, it is essential to recognize the diversity of local identities. The Inuit of Greenland, for example, refer to themselves as Greenlanders or Kalaallit in their own language, and their language as Greenlandic or Kalaallisut. Similarly, the Inuit people in Alaska typically refer to themselves as Inupiat (and their language as Inupiaq) and do not typically use the term Inuit to describe themselves collectively. This underscores the importance of respecting local preferences and avoiding generalizations.
Furthermore, Alaskans use the term "Alaska Native," which encompasses all Eskimo, Aleut, and Indian people of Alaska, excluding Inuit or Yupik people originating outside the state. "Alaska Native" has significant legal implications in Alaska and the United States, particularly due to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971. The term "Eskimo Culture" encompasses many diverse groups.
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity
The linguistic, ethnic, and cultural differences between Yupik and Inuit peoples make it challenging to find a universally accepted term. While there has been some movement toward using "Inuit," the Inuit Circumpolar Council, representing a circumpolar population of approximately 150,000 Inuit and Yupik people from Greenland, Canada, Alaska, and Siberia, defines "Inuit" for use within the ICC to include the Inupiat, Yupik (Alaska), Inuit, Inuvialuit (Canada), Kalaallit (Greenland), and Yupik (Russia). The term Eskimo Culture is often used to describe all of these groups collectively.
The Enduring Legacy of Eskimo Culture
The Eskimo people, whether referred to as Inuit, Yupik, or other local designations, represent a remarkable example of human adaptation and resilience. Their rich cultural heritage, diverse languages, and deep connection to the Arctic environment continue to thrive in the face of modern challenges. Understanding the history, terminology, and cultural nuances associated with these groups is essential for fostering respect, promoting self-determination, and ensuring the preservation of their unique identities for generations to come. The term Eskimo Culture encompasses a wide range of traditions and practices.