The Tlingit, an indigenous people of the United States, have resided in Southeast Alaska since time immemorial, establishing a deep and enduring connection with the land. Their presence predates written records, woven into the very fabric of the Alaskan landscape. Today, the Tlingit are a federally recognized region-wide tribe operating under the umbrella of the Central Council of Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska. This council serves as a unified voice for the Tlingit people, advocating for their rights and interests. In addition to this overarching body, thirteen individual Tlingit communities within Southeast Alaska also hold federal recognition as distinct tribes, highlighting the diversity and localized governance within the broader Tlingit Nation. Further solidifying their organizational structure, the regional Sealaska Corporation, along with twelve communities, are organized as Alaska Native village and urban corporations under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971. This act aimed to address historical grievances and provide a pathway for self-determination through land ownership and economic development.
The Tlingit maintain a strong sense of collective identity, distinguishing themselves from neighboring indigenous groups. This shared identity is rooted in their connection to a specific geographical region within Southeast Alaska, a land characterized by dramatic coastlines, towering forests, and abundant natural resources. Shared social customs and customary laws, applicable to all Tlingit regardless of their location – from Cape Fox in the south to Yakutat in the north – further bind the community. Historically, a common language, mutually intelligible across the entire Tlingit territory, acted as another powerful unifying force. This linguistic connection facilitated communication, trade, and the transmission of cultural knowledge.
While a centralized political organization encompassing all Tlingit did not emerge until the early 20th century, a cohesive social structure existed long before. A shared system of customs, traditions, and beliefs, coupled with frequent intermarriage and extensive social and economic interactions, fostered a sense of unity and common identity. These interwoven relationships created a strong social network that facilitated cooperation and mutual support.
Throughout history, the Tlingit have demonstrated their ability to unite in the face of external threats. Clans formed coalitions in response to actions that endangered their culture and way of life. This unity was particularly evident in their resistance to encroachments on their land by the Russians in the early 1800s and later by the Americans after 1867. Following the transfer of Alaska to American jurisdiction, the Tlingit proactively sought legal representation in Washington to protect their interests.
The formal unification of the Tlingit and Haida Indians occurred in 1912 with the establishment of the Alaska Native Brotherhood, a region-wide organization dedicated to advocating for Native rights. This alliance was further strengthened by the creation of the Central Council of Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska, an entity specifically designed to pursue and implement the settlement of their aboriginal land claims. The persistent efforts of the Central Council ultimately led to the establishment of the Sealaska Corporation and twelve village and urban corporations, empowering the Tlingit with control over their ancestral lands and resources.
Today, the Tlingit continue to identify as a distinct tribe, acting collectively through their traditional customs, federally recognized tribes, the Sealaska Corporation, and the village and urban corporations. While some ancient practices have evolved over time, the core values, ideologies, and ceremonial practices of the Tlingit endure. The Tlingit culture and society is a dynamic entity, constantly adapting to contemporary challenges while remaining firmly rooted in its rich heritage. The fundamental values and basic traditions of the Tlingit persist as guiding principles for future generations. Understanding the Culture and Organization of the Tlingit Indians is crucial for appreciating their resilience and continued cultural vitality.
The Clan: Foundation of Tlingit Society
The clan serves as the fundamental property-holding unit within Tlingit society. Property ownership resides within the clan as a whole, rather than with individual members. This communal ownership reflects a deep-seated belief in shared responsibility and collective well-being. The clan is composed of distinct but interconnected lineages that trace their ancestry back to a common ancestor. This shared lineage strengthens the bonds between clan members and reinforces their sense of belonging. Under the Tlingit system, lineages are formed through a line of females and their brothers, who maintain close and ongoing relationships. Descent and kinship are traced through the maternal line, or the mother’s side of the family. A Tlingit child is born into his or her mother’s clan, solidifying the importance of the maternal lineage in determining identity and social standing.
The Tlingit clan is further divided into houses, each comprised of several closely related families. The Tlingit term "Hit" refers both to the physical structure of the house and the matrilineage associated with it. The house functions as a sub-unit of the clan. Its inhabitants include matrilineally-linked males, their wives and offspring, and the men’s maternal nephews. However, the wives and their children belong to a different clan than their husbands or fathers, maintaining the integrity of the matrilineal system. The clan is the enduring organization that unifies the Tlingit into a cohesive and functioning unit. It provides individuals with a link to their ancestors and ensures their perpetuation into the future. Tlingit individuals are born into a clan and remain members throughout their lives. Although individuals die, the clan persists, transcending individual lifespans.
Clans remain self-perpetuating through the birth of new members to replace those who have passed away. Infants are often given the names of their clan ancestors, reflecting a belief in reincarnation and the cyclical nature of life. This system of naming ensures that clans retain their original membership through the rebirth of the same individuals. In the present day, clans remain active within the ceremonial sphere, particularly through memorial potlatches held to honor deceased clan members and ancestors.
These ceremonies reaffirm and maintain relationships among clan members, with ancestors, opposing clan members, crest animals, and spirits. Ownership of clan property and crests is also validated during these events. The office of clan leaders, clan names, and clan objects are transferred between generations to ensure the continuity and perpetuity of the clan. The structure of the Culture and Organization of the Tlingit Indians is built upon the clan system.
The Crest as Clan Property: A Symbol of Identity and Heritage
Crests that appear on clan objects are the exclusive property of their respective clans. These crests are not merely decorative symbols; they represent the history, identity, and spiritual connection of the clan. As noted by Sergei Kan, a scholar of Tlingit culture, crests are the most important symbols of the matrilineal group and are jealously guarded possessions. Emmons further emphasizes that the crest is a birthright, as real as life itself. These crests, acquired by ancestors and held in perpetuity by their matrilineal descendants, serve multiple purposes.
Crests identify a clan and its membership, distinguishing its members from others and defining their relationships with other Tlingit. They chronicle the origin or other supernatural and significant events in the history of the clan, serving as a visual record of their past. Crests also serve as title to the object on which they are placed and to the site and geographic region where the event occurred, linking the clan to specific places and events. They symbolize the special relationship a clan member has to the animal depicted on the crest, embodying the spirit or being represented.
Crests, along with associated oral traditions, songs, and names, represent intellectual property and are owned by clans. In recent years, clans have asserted their rights over their crests, demanding and receiving payment for the duplication of their crests by westerners, including museums. This reflects a growing awareness of intellectual property rights and a determination to protect their cultural heritage.
Sergei Kan also highlights the sacred aspects of crests, noting the reverential treatment they receive from their owners. Clan objects embodied with clan crests are often addressed as if they were human. Orators speak to clan regalia as if they were individuals rather than to the person wearing them. When clan objects on which the crests appear deteriorate, they are burned and mourned as if they were human. The name of the crest is then transferred to a new object, ensuring its continued existence. According to Kan’s analysis, the crest remains immortal, surviving its temporary representations in the same manner as a person’s spirit survives its body.
Only members of a clan are entitled to use their respective clan crests. As property, crests could be taken or granted as a liability payment. They were sometimes taken in war to satisfy a debt, but clans would do everything in their power to regain them. Clans could also demand payment or even the death of an individual who illegally used their clan crests, underscoring the seriousness of unauthorized use. Grandparents may extend use rights, but not ownership rights, to their clan crests to their grandchildren who are not members of their clan. These use rights are granted for ceremonial regalia or jewelry but do not generally apply for use on major objects such as screens, poles, or clan hats. This is a use right limited to the lifetime of the individual grandchild, with no legal right to extend use or ownership rights to any other individual. These use rights cannot be claimed by the grandchild’s offspring, nor can they be claimed by another clan to satisfy a liability payment that the grandchild or his clan may incur. The crest system is intrinsic to understanding the Culture and Organization of the Tlingit Indians.
Clan Leaders/Trustees: Stewards of Clan Property
Title to clan property is recorded in the name of the head man (Shaadeihani) or trustee (Hits’aati) of the clan. This individual acts as the trustee, holding clan property for the benefit of its membership. Tlingit law is clear that the trustee cannot make independent decisions regarding the alienation of clan property. Anthropologists who have studied Tlingit property law uniformly agree that the trustee does not have the authority to sell or dispose of clan property without clan consent.
Emmons points out that the clan leader is highly respected, but his authority is limited, and major decisions involving the interests of the clan are subject to clan consent. The clan leader represents the clan during formal meetings to plan ceremonial events or other activities in which the clan is involved. During ceremonies, the clan leader or an esteemed elder may conduct and lead the rites. The clan leader and elders are responsible for bringing out clan objects and recounting the associated oral traditions. They are also expected to respond to the display of clan objects, speeches, and songs offered by an opposing clan. The clan leader must ensure that spiritual balance is maintained during ceremonial rites and potlatches, reinforcing the importance of their role as a steward of cultural and spiritual traditions. The understanding of the clan leader role is essential to understanding the Culture and Organization of the Tlingit Indians.
In conclusion, the Culture and Organization of the Tlingit Indians is a complex and fascinating system, rooted in a strong sense of collective identity, a matrilineal kinship system, and a deep connection to the land. The clan serves as the fundamental unit of social organization, with crests serving as powerful symbols of identity and heritage. Clan leaders act as stewards of clan property, ensuring its preservation for future generations. This enduring cultural framework has allowed the Tlingit to adapt to changing circumstances while maintaining their unique cultural identity and traditions.
