The story of the Cherokee in Arkansas is a complex tapestry woven with threads of migration, adaptation, conflict, and enduring cultural identity. Their presence in the region, stretching from the late 18th century through the devastating era of Indian Removal and beyond, has left an indelible mark on the state’s history and continues to resonate in contemporary perceptions of Native American heritage. This article delves into the details of that presence, exploring the reasons for their westward movement, the nature of their settlements, their interactions with other groups, and the lasting legacy of their time in what is now Arkansas.
At the dawn of European contact, the Cherokee people occupied a substantial territory encompassing the rugged terrain of western North Carolina and extending into portions of Virginia, Georgia, and eastern Tennessee. This core homeland served as the foundation for their cultural and political development for centuries. Over the subsequent two hundred years, the Cherokee nation experienced a period of expansion, gradually extending its reach throughout the southern Appalachian Mountains. This expansion brought them further into Georgia, as well as into South Carolina, northeastern Alabama, and even across the Cumberland River, reaching into Kentucky and West Virginia. This territorial growth was not always peaceful, and in some instances, it occurred as a result of the displacement of other indigenous tribes.
However, the tranquility of this expanded territory was not to last. By the 1780s, the pressure of encroaching Euro-American settlements, particularly in the aftermath of the Revolutionary War, began to exert an irresistible force, pushing many Cherokee westward. This marked the beginning of Cherokee migration into Arkansas, a journey driven by the desire to escape the relentless encroachment upon their ancestral lands.
The Europeans, upon encountering the Cherokee, recognized them as one of the "Five Civilized Tribes," a designation that reflected their adoption of certain aspects of European culture, including agriculture, a written language (thanks to Sequoyah), and a formal government. The other four tribes included in this grouping were the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole, all of whom shared similar experiences of interaction, adaptation, and ultimately, displacement at the hands of the expanding United States.
Migration during the Settlement and Early Statehood Era
The period from the 1780s to the 1820s witnessed a significant influx of Cherokee migrants into the lands that would eventually become the state of Arkansas. This movement was a direct consequence of the mounting pressures on their homeland in Georgia, eastern Tennessee, and western North and South Carolina. The relentless expansion of Euro-American settlements posed a direct threat to Cherokee sovereignty and way of life. Faced with a series of military and judicial setbacks in their struggle to maintain their territory, the Cherokee began to explore opportunities for resettlement west of the Mississippi River.
Driven by the desire to escape the reach of the burgeoning English colonies, as many as a thousand Cherokee individuals and families responded to the escalating challenges in their home territory by venturing west into Spanish Louisiana. This initial wave of migration represented a bold attempt to establish a new foothold beyond the sphere of influence of the encroaching European powers.
The earliest Cherokee settlements in Arkansas were concentrated in the St. Francis River drainage and along Crowley’s Ridge in the northeastern part of the state. The presence of the Cherokee is still evident in place names such as Doublehead Bluff in Cross County, named after a prominent Cherokee leader, and Big and Little Telico Creeks in St. Francis County, which were named after a major town in their original homeland. Similarly, Crow Creek in Cross County is believed to have been named after the Crowtown Cherokee settlement, itself a namesake of another town back east.
These early migrations were often led by individuals who guided groups of Cherokee families to their new homes in eastern Arkansas. Prominent figures among these leaders included Connetoo (also known as John Hill), Unacata (also known as White Man Killer), William "Red-Headed Will" Webber, George Duvall, and Moses Price (also known as Wohsi). These individuals played a critical role in facilitating the transition and establishing the initial Cherokee communities in the region.
However, the newly established settlements were not immune to the forces of nature. The devastating New Madrid Earthquakes of 1811-1812 disrupted these communities, adding to the challenges faced by the Cherokee migrants. In June of 1812, a Cherokee prophet named Skawuaw, also known as the Swan, delivered a speech at Crowtown, warning of further destruction unless the Cherokee abandoned Anglo-American ways. This prophecy, coupled with the trauma of the earthquakes, prompted many Cherokee to abandon their settlements in eastern Arkansas and seek refuge in the Arkansas River Valley, west of present-day Little Rock.
This new area, characterized by its mountains and river valleys, offered a landscape reminiscent of the foothills of the Appalachians, their ancestral homeland. However, this region was not without its own challenges. The Cherokee soon found themselves in conflict with the Osage, who claimed the area as their hunting grounds, as well as with American settlers who were also migrating westward across the Mississippi River. In an attempt to maintain peace between the Cherokee and the Osage, the U.S. government later established Fort Smith in Sebastian County. Despite these conflicts, the westward migration of Cherokee families continued, with new groups arriving from the homeland.
Notable figures who led these later migrations included Black Fox, Dutch, Spring Frog, Toluntuskee, and Takatoka. Some groups eventually moved further south to the Red River area, under the leadership of Du-wa-li (also known as the Bowl) and later under Dutch.
Back in the Cherokee homeland, the relentless pressure from federal and state governments culminated in the Turkeytown Treaty of July 8, 1817. This treaty involved the exchange of Cherokee land in the east for land in northwest Arkansas, specifically the area north of the Arkansas River and south of the White River. The primary objective of the Cherokee in Arkansas was to consolidate their holdings and establish a new, secure homeland in northwest Arkansas. However, many Cherokee in the east viewed the treaty as a betrayal, as it facilitated the U.S. government’s goal of removing all Cherokee from their ancestral lands and relocating them to Arkansas.
As many as 4,000 Cherokee may have migrated to Arkansas under the terms of this treaty, becoming known as the Western Cherokee. These emigrants included families led by prominent figures such as the principal chief John Jolly (brother to Tolluntuskee), Dick Justice (also known as Dek-keh the Just), the Glass, Walter "Wat" Webber, John Rogers, Tom Graves, John and David Brown, and, in 1829, Sequoyah (also known as George Gist or Guest), the inventor of the Cherokee syllabary. However, the vast majority of the Cherokee population, numbering around 35,000, remained in their homeland.
The land in Arkansas was granted to the Cherokee collectively, rather than in individual parcels, meaning that it was not considered a reservation managed by the U.S. government. The Western Cherokee established scattered family farmsteads, complete with cattle and, in some cases, even African-American slaves.
These dispersed families were organized into traditional "towns," which were spread out along tributaries on the north side of the Arkansas River, in areas such as Galla Creek, Illinois Bayou, Piney Creek, Spadra Creek, Horsehead Creek, and Mulberry River (from Pope County to Franklin County respectively), as well as Dutch Creek and Spring Creek south of the river (in Yell County). Other Cherokee families settled in the hills and valleys further into the Ozark Mountains. The Cherokee in Arkansas were forging a new life.
Cherokee Life
The Cherokee in Arkansas towns were held together by the strong kinship ties that had been brought west from the homeland, primarily traced through female lineages. The centers of these communities typically included a council house and a stickball court, reflecting the importance of traditional governance and recreation. The Western Cherokee were gradually moving toward a more centralized form of government, with a governing council and a principal chief, a position held by John Jolly after 1818.
Some Western Cherokee, such as Tolluntuskee, even invited Protestant missionaries to establish Dwight Mission in 1820, near present-day Russellville in Pope County. The aim of the mission was to educate Cherokee children in Anglo-American ways. Ironically, the mission was located in an area firmly under the control of Takatoka, who opposed its goals.
Despite these external influences, the Cherokee in Arkansas remained committed to improving their own holdings. They built mills, cleared land for farming and pasture, and generally embraced agricultural and entrepreneurial endeavors, becoming the first true agricultural pioneers in northwest Arkansas. For example, Sequoyah established a salt works on the north fork of the Illinois Bayou in what would become Pope County, and the Glass family did the same on Hackers Creek.
The British naturalist Thomas Nuttall, during his travels up the Arkansas River in 1819, provided a vivid description of the Arkansas Cherokee:
“Both banks of the river, as we proceeded, were lined with the houses and farms of the Cherokees, and though their dress was a mixture of indigenous and European taste, yet in their houses, which are decently furnished, and in the farms, which were well fenced and stocked with cattle… argue a propitious progress in their population. Their superior industry, either as hunters or farmers, proves the value of property among them.”
Nuttall’s description of Chief John Jolly is particularly insightful. He met Jolly and his wife at Walter Webber’s store at the mouth of Illinois Bayou on April 9, 1819, and reported:
"I should scarcely have distinguished him from an American, except by his language. He was very plain, prudent, and unassuming in his dress and manners; a Franklin amongst his countrymen, and affectionately called the beloved father."
Jolly and his thousands of Cherokee neighbors were undoubtedly frontiers people, but they also strived to maintain their distinct identity as Native Americans. The Cherokee in Arkansas were determined to thrive.
Indian Removal and the Civil War Era
Despite their efforts to build a new life in Arkansas, the Western Cherokee faced mounting pressure from the federal government and the newly established Arkansas Territory. This pressure ultimately led to the Treaty of Washington on May 6, 1828, which ceded the Arkansas lands back to the United States.
As a result, most of the Western Cherokee were forced to relocate to Indian Territory in northeast Oklahoma, leaving behind their homes, farms, orchards, and mills to be occupied by the Anglo-Americans who streamed into the area. These Western Cherokee became known as the Old Settlers, and they were eventually reunited with the main body of the Cherokee Nation following the tragic era of Indian Removal a few years later.
Between 1834 and 1839, an estimated 30,000 Cherokee passed through Arkansas on their way to Indian Territory in Oklahoma, either by land, water, or a combination of both. This forced migration, known as the Trail of Tears, resulted in immense suffering and loss of life, with hundreds of Cherokee dying along the way and being buried in shallow graves.
While some Arkansans expressed sorrow at the sight of these displaced people, others saw an opportunity to profit from their misfortune. They sold food to support the Cherokee and their animals, provided passage on steamboats and wagons, and operated ferries across the numerous streams, charging exorbitant fees for their services.
The Cherokee Nation persisted in Indian Territory on the western border of Arkansas, but not without internal strife. Factional conflicts that had emerged during the final dissolution of the homeland in the 1830s escalated into a civil war that lasted until 1846. These divisions resurfaced during the U.S. Civil War, with Cherokee individuals and groups fighting on both sides of the conflict in Indian Territory and sometimes in Arkansas.
This violence led to widespread disruptions, lawlessness, and the movement of refugees back and forth across the border, with some remaining in Arkansas. In more peaceful times, Indian Territory provided a valuable market for agricultural produce and manufactured goods, allowing Anglo-American farmers, traders, and shippers to profit. Conversely, during periods of hardship, Cherokee families sometimes sought work in Arkansas.
Modern-day Perceptions of the Cherokee
The concept of the Cherokee in Arkansas remains a potent and widely held perception in Arkansas. This enduring association is largely due to the two centuries of Cherokee presence in the state and in neighboring Oklahoma. This familiarity with the Cherokee, however, often overshadows the historical significance of other native peoples of Arkansas, such as the Quapaw and the Caddo. Furthermore, the 10,000 years of prehistoric Indian life and the artifacts that remain are sometimes mistakenly attributed to the Cherokee.
Many Arkansans claim Cherokee ancestry, often citing a Cherokee grandmother or great-grandmother who was purportedly a "princess." While the veracity of these claims is often questionable, the persistence of the narrative reflects the enduring influence of the Cherokee and the romanticized notions associated with their heritage. It’s important to note that the concept of a "princess" in Cherokee society is a relatively recent invention, popularized by powwows in the mid-twentieth century, and does not accurately reflect traditional Cherokee social structures.
It’s also crucial to distinguish between those who claim Cherokee ancestry and those who are officially recognized as members of federally recognized Cherokee tribes. Currently, only three groups are officially recognized by the Bureau of Indian Affairs of the U.S. Department of the Interior: the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, the United Keetowah Band of Cherokee Indians, and the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians.
The adaptations made by the Cherokee to American society, their mobility throughout the centuries, their resistance to government intrusion, and the pervasive prejudice that characterized the Anglo-American view of Native Americans have all contributed to the ambiguities surrounding questions of identity and belonging. However, when people in Arkansas celebrate their Indian heritage, they often associate themselves with the Cherokee, even if their attire and customs are drawn from Plains Indian traditions. This enduring connection speaks to the profound and lasting impact of the Cherokee on the cultural landscape of Arkansas.