The Arikara, also known as the Sahnish people, are a Native American tribe with a rich and complex history intricately woven with the land, spirituality, and resilience. Their story is one of migration, adaptation, cultural endurance, and the challenges of navigating a changing world. This overview delves into the historical tapestry of the Arikara, exploring their spiritual beliefs, societal structures, migrations, encounters with European powers, and their ongoing efforts to preserve their cultural identity.
At the heart of Arikara spirituality lies a profound connection to the natural world and a belief in a supreme being. This supreme being, often referred to as the Chief Above (Neshanu Natchitak), is considered the ultimate source of power and wisdom, ruling over all creation. However, Neshanu Natchitak delegated authority over the earth to Mother Corn, a vital intermediary between the divine and humanity.
The Mother Corn Ceremony, a cornerstone of Arikara religious life, served as a powerful ritual centered on the theme of world renewal. This ceremony acted as a bridge, linking the universe, symbolized by a cedar tree representing Mother Corn, to the keepers of sacred bundles and their extended families. These bundles, whether belonging to individuals or groups, provided a tangible connection to spiritual powers essential for navigating the challenges and complexities of daily life. They were revered as conduits to blessings and guidance.
Mother Corn’s influence extended far beyond ceremonial practices. In the realm of daily life, she was seen as the source of knowledge and instruction, guiding the people in the proper ways of living in harmony with the world. She instilled in them a deep respect for plants and animals, imparting invaluable knowledge of agriculture, the arts, and the construction of dwellings. This knowledge permeated every aspect of Arikara society, with ceremonial lodges becoming symbolic representations of the structure and order of the world.
The Arikara people traditionally lived in earth-lodge dwellings, establishing semi-sedentary horticultural communities along the Missouri River, primarily in what is now South Dakota. These earth lodges were not merely homes; they were integral components of the Arikara worldview, mirroring the tribe’s cosmology. The central earth lodge, also known as the holy lodge, served as a ceremonial structure where various bundle rites were performed, further solidifying the connection between the physical and spiritual realms.
Tracing the origins of the Arikara reveals a fascinating journey of migration and adaptation. Archaeological and oral historical evidence suggests that the ancestors of the Arikara originated in the eastern regions of present-day Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Louisiana. However, their expertise in earth-lodge construction and maize agriculture developed during their subsequent residence in the central Great Plains, particularly in present-day Nebraska.
The Arikaras share a close kinship with the Skiri Pawnee tribe, from whom they separated while both groups were settled along the Loup River in Nebraska. This shared history is evident in their linguistic similarities, as both groups speak languages belonging to the Caddoan language family.
The Arikara migration continued northward along the Missouri River, eventually leading them to their settlements in what is now South Dakota. By the time European travelers encountered them, the Arikara had already endured significant population losses due to devastating smallpox epidemics, which ravaged numerous native villages throughout the 18th and 19th centuries.
Despite these hardships, the remaining Arikaras continued their northward journey, eventually settling south of the Mandan and Hidatsa villages, north of present-day Bismarck, North Dakota. Here, they established a thriving trade network, exchanging agricultural products with other Plains tribes.
The earth-lodge villages of the Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa became a focal point for Euro-Americans as westward expansion intensified. However, another major smallpox epidemic in 1837 severely impacted all three riparian settlements. By 1856, the surviving Arikaras had joined forces with the Mandans and Hidatsas at Like-A-Fishhook Village, seeking strength in unity.
The establishment of the Fort Berthold Reservation in North Dakota in 1891 marked a turning point in Arikara history. By executive order, the Arikaras, along with the Mandans and Hidatsas, were forced to resettle on the reservation.
The first cession of Arikara lands occurred through a treaty signed at Fort Laramie in 1851. This treaty designated over twelve million acres of land between the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers as reservation land. However, subsequent treaty abrogations drastically reduced the indigenous land base of the Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras to a mere 640,000 acres by 1910.
The reservation period brought significant cultural adjustments. Traditional gender roles were disrupted as men were taught Euro-American farming techniques, encroaching on what had traditionally been women’s domain. Despite these challenges, by 1920, the Arikaras had successfully adapted and were actively participating in the farming and ranching economies of North Dakota, particularly in the White Shield District of Fort Berthold, where they benefited from the fertile land.
The Arikara Nation, in 1934, under the Indian Reorganization Act, merged with the Hidatsa and Mandan Nations, forming a single political entity known as the Three Affiliated Tribes. This marked a new chapter in their political landscape, fostering collaboration and collective action.
However, the construction of the Garrison Dam in 1951, a post-World War II development project aimed at harnessing hydroelectric power on the Missouri River, had devastating consequences for the Fort Berthold people. The dam fragmented the reservation land base, dividing communities along artificial geopolitical boundaries. The benefits of the project have remained limited for the people of Fort Berthold, while the social and cultural costs have been immense.
Despite the challenges posed by the Garrison Dam, the Arikara community has persevered. While Arikaras reside throughout the Fort Berthold Reservation, the most concentrated tribal community remains in White Shield, near the original reservation settlements and significant cultural sites. One such site is the Old Scouts Cemetery, a place of remembrance for the famous Arikara scouts who served with General George Custer and their descendants.
Arikara political and social life reflects the cosmological ordering of their world, which, in pre-reservation times, was characterized by a tightly structured and hierarchical system. Chieftainships were hereditary and sanctioned by ritual authority. Today, the relationships between cosmology, tribal leadership, and social organization are influenced by hereditary class positions and kinship ties that connect individuals to extant ceremonial offices.
Renewal ceremonies play a vital role in reaffirming kinship relations, marking significant life cycle events such as the giving of an Arikara name to a child and the funerary rites known as the After-Feed, which commemorate a person’s passage to the next world.
Despite the population losses caused by smallpox epidemics, Euro-American conquest, and the dispossession of native lands, ritual life continues to be practiced with modified regularity among contemporary Arikaras, many of whom identify with the Awahu band and trace their ancestry to the esteemed Arikara chief, Sitting Bear.
While some Arikara elders refer to tribal genealogical associations as "clans," these groupings do not mirror the clan structures of the Mandans and Hidatsas, with whom many Arikaras have intermarried. All three tribes adhere to classificatory ways of reckoning generational kin, with a continuing emphasis on matrilineality and matrifocality.
Today, the White Shield District is home to a diverse range of community organizations and programs that celebrate Arikara culture. The annual powwow, the White Shield Celebration, is a vibrant display of Arikara traditions, music, and dance. The Dead Grass Society Singers, the resident drum group for White Shield, actively preserve and create Arikara songs, which are an integral part of their cultural heritage.
Furthermore, through the dedicated efforts of the Sahnish Cultural Society and Fort Berthold Community College, the Arikara language has been incorporated into the community-based educational curriculum, ensuring its survival for future generations.
Through these and countless other initiatives, the Sahnish people are actively working towards cultural survival, community empowerment, and the preservation of their unique identity in a rapidly changing world. The story of the Arikara is a testament to their enduring spirit and their unwavering commitment to their heritage.