American Horse, a name synonymous with wit, shrewdness, and a complex legacy, belonged to the Oglala Sioux. He inherited both the name and the esteemed position of his uncle, a warrior who fell in the Battle of Slim Buttes in 1876. This inheritance thrust the younger American Horse into a pivotal role during a period of immense upheaval for the Sioux Nation.
His birth occurred shortly before the escalating encroachments of white settlers upon traditional Sioux territories. His formative years coincided with a time of aggressive expansion and profound cultural clashes. This era presented immense challenges and demanded difficult choices from leaders navigating the turbulent waters of a changing world.
Early Life and Influences
American Horse’s early life was significantly shaped by the absence of his father, who died in battle when he was quite young. Consequently, he was raised and tutored by his uncle, the original American Horse, from whom he learned the ways of the warrior and the responsibilities of leadership.
The band led by American Horse maintained close ties with a nearby trading post. This association fostered a generally amicable relationship with the white settlers, a pragmatic approach that their leader consistently promoted. This perspective, while perhaps controversial to some, stemmed from a deep-seated belief in the necessity of adapting to the changing realities facing the Sioux people.
According to tribal lore, at his birth, his grandfather proclaimed, "Put him out in the sun! Let him ask his great-grandfather, the Sun, for the warm blood of a warrior!" This symbolic act underscored the hope that the child would embody courage, strength, and vitality. Indeed, American Horse was known for his vibrant personality, a man who relished excitement and was drawn to the center of attention. He possessed a natural charisma that made him a compelling figure.
Even in his youth, American Horse displayed a talent for mimicry and impersonation. This skill made him popular among his peers and contributed to his early emergence as a leader within his age group. His natural flair for the dramatic and his inherent ability as a speaker were evident from an early age, traits that would later serve him well in his role as a negotiator and advocate for his people.
Early Tests of Courage and Cunning
At the tender age of ten, American Horse faced a harrowing encounter with three Crow warriors while tending to a herd of ponies near water. Outnumbered and in imminent danger, the young boy demonstrated remarkable resourcefulness and bravery. Realizing his precarious situation, he yelled at the ponies, driving them toward the safety of the camp. Simultaneously, he swiftly sought refuge in a dense thicket of willows, effectively concealing himself from the pursuing warriors.
The Crow warriors managed to capture a portion of the herd within sight of the Sioux camp, prompting a counter-chase. However, they ultimately escaped with their stolen ponies. Back at the camp, American Horse’s mother was understandably distraught, fearing the worst for her son. However, after the initial frenzy subsided, the young boy emerged unharmed.
When questioned about his daring escape, the young American Horse astutely remarked, "I knew they would not take the time to hunt for small game when there was so much bigger close by." This statement revealed a sharp mind capable of assessing risk and leveraging the situation to his advantage.
Humor and Mishaps
As he grew older, American Horse continued to exhibit a blend of courage, humor, and a propensity for mishaps. One such incident occurred during a buffalo hunt. While returning to camp with the other hunters, the mule he was riding, heavily laden with meat and skins, became unruly.
Apparently objecting to the excessive burden, the mule began to buck and kick, scattering the freshly acquired meat along the trail, much to the amusement of the other hunters. However, American Horse, ever the performer, transformed the mishap into an entertaining spectacle. Clinging to the back of the bucking mule like a seasoned circus rider, he sang a Brave Heart song, managing to stay mounted amidst the chaos. His performance culminated in a grand finale, eliciting laughter and cheers from his companions.
Far from admitting defeat or embarrassment, American Horse boldly boasted of his horsemanship and declared that his "brother," the donkey, would be a formidable weapon capable of scattering any enemy. He even suggested that the mule be called upon to lead a charge in future battles.
On another occasion, after scouting for two consecutive nights, American Horse fell into a deep sleep. A raid by Crow warriors awoke him to a scene of chaos and confusion. Eager to join the fight, he grabbed his gun and fired, announcing a "coup," as was customary after striking an enemy. However, much to his chagrin, when others rushed to the spot, they discovered that he had mistakenly shot a hobbled pony belonging to his own camp. The incident became a source of considerable amusement at his expense, and he never fully recovered from the embarrassment of the blunder.
While undoubtedly fearless and eager to prove himself in battle, American Horse seemed to be plagued by a series of unfortunate incidents that hampered his efforts to achieve martial glory.
An Unconventional Warrior
During a war party expedition to the Wind River country against the Shoshones, American Horse’s unconventional nature was once again on display. The Sioux warriors, vastly outnumbered by the Shoshone, concealed themselves and waited for an opportunity to attack an isolated hunting party. As they waited, their food supplies dwindled. One day, spotting a small group of Shoshone nearby, the young American Horse noticed a fat black-tail deer close at hand.
Unable to resist the temptation of fresh meat, he swiftly drew an arrow and killed the deer. He and several of his famished companions then eagerly fell upon the carcass, cutting out the liver to consume it raw. According to accounts, one of the warriors was knocked down by the dying deer’s last kick. Nevertheless, fortified by their meager meal, the warriors launched an attack, successfully routing their enemies. The story of how American Horse hunted and feasted between the ambush and the attack became a humorous anecdote recounted among his people.
On another occasion, while drying his sacred war bonnet and other ceremonial gear over a small fire, the flames suddenly flared up. In a moment of forgetfulness, American Horse began beating out the flames with the war bonnet itself, inadvertently breaking off one of the sacred buffalo horns. These and other such incidents became legendary, filling the chronicles of his life with a mix of humor and misfortune.
A Narrow Escape
American Horse himself recounted one particularly harrowing experience:
"We were as promising a party of young warriors as our tribe ever sent against any of its ancestral enemies. It was midsummer, and after going two days’ journey from home we began to send two scouts ahead daily while the main body kept a half day behind. The scouts set out every evening and traveled all night. One night the great war pipe was held out to me and to Young-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses. At daybreak, having met no one, we hid our horses and climbed to the top of the nearest butte to take an observation."
"It was a very hot day. We lay flat on our blankets, facing the west where the cliff fell off in a sheer descent, and with our backs toward the more gradual slope dotted with scrub pines and cedars. We stuck some tall grass on our heads and proceeded to study the landscape spread before us for any sign of man."
"The sweeping valleys were dotted with herds, both large and small, of buffalo and elk, and now and then we caught a glimpse of a coyote slinking into the gulches, returning from night hunting to sleep. While intently watching some moving body at a distance, we could not yet tell whether of men or animals, I heard a faint noise behind me and slowly turned my head. Behold! a grizzly bear sneaking up on all fours and almost ready to spring!"
"’Run!’ I yelled into the ear of my companion, and we both leaped to our feet in a second. ‘Separate! separate!’ he shouted, and as we did so, the bear chose me for his meat. I ran downhill as fast as I could, but he was gaining."
"’Dodge around a tree!’ screamed Young-Man-Afraid. I took a deep breath and made a last spurt, desperately circling the first tree I came to. As the ground was steep just there, I turned a somersault one way and the bear the other."
"I picked myself up in time to climb the tree, and was fairly out of reach when he gathered himself together and came at me more furiously than ever, holding in one paw the shreds of my breechcloth, for in the fall he had just scratched my back and cut my belt in two, and carried off my only garment for a trophy!"
"My friend was well up another tree and laughing heartily at my predicament, and when the bear saw that he could not get at either of us he reluctantly departed, after I had politely addressed him and promised to make an offering to his spirit on my safe return. I don’t think I ever had a narrower escape," he concluded.
A Pragmatic Leader in Troubled Times
During the tumultuous period from 1865 to 1877, American Horse advocated for yielding to the government’s demands, convinced that resistance was futile. He did not rise to prominence as a leader until 1876, when he assumed the name and position of his deceased uncle. Prior to this, he was known by the nickname "Manishnee," meaning "Can not walk" or "Played out."
When the majority of the Oglala, including his band, relocated to the reservation, American Horse aligned himself with the peace faction at the Red Cloud Agency near Fort Robinson, Nebraska. He played a crucial role in maintaining order among the young warriors.
Given the prevailing suspicion that older, more established chiefs (with the exception of Spotted Tail) harbored hostile intentions, the military authorities relied heavily on American Horse. Many of his young men, at his urging, enlisted as scouts, and American Horse himself eventually joined the service.
In the early months of 1876, rumors circulated about certain bands contemplating a breakaway. Their leader, nicknamed "Sioux Jim" by the soldiers, posed a potential threat to the fragile peace. American Horse approached him as a peacemaker, but was rebuffed and labeled a coward.
Returning to his own camp, American Horse informed his men that Sioux Jim was intent on causing trouble and that, to prevent further calamity, he needed to be stopped. He confronted the defiant Jim, accompanied by several warriors. The rebellious leader emerged, gun in hand, but American Horse was quicker, shooting and wounding him. One of American Horse’s men then stepped forward and killed Sioux Jim, effectively quelling the unrest, at least temporarily, until the killing of Crazy Horse. In the ensuing crisis, American Horse once again played a vital role in supporting the government’s efforts.
From that point onward, American Horse became an active and influential figure in the affairs of the Teton Sioux. He was renowned for his eloquence, which was generally conciliatory but could also deliver sharp critiques of the white man’s duplicity. He possessed a natural ease and was a master of repartee. He once remarked that if one had to wear golden slippers to enter the white man’s heaven, no Indian would ever get there, as the whites had seized the Black Hills and all the gold within.
A Voice of Reason During the Messiah Craze
It was during the final struggle of his people, during the time of the Messiah craze in 1890-1891, that American Horse truly demonstrated his greatness. While many of his peers were swept away by the new religious movement, he remained skeptical and cautioned his band against participating. When the movement escalated into a widespread uprising, he took a firm stance against it.
When all Indians who refused to participate in the Ghost Dance were ordered to gather at the Pine Ridge Agency, American Horse was the first to bring his people in. During this time, the author, Ohiyesa, spoke with him daily.
When Little was arrested, it had been agreed among the disaffected to have him resist, which meant that he would be roughly handled. This was to be their excuse to attack the Indian police, which would probably lead to a general massacre or outbreak.
This desperate move was opposed from the beginning by American Horse, and it was believed that his life was threatened. On the day of the "Big Issue," when thousands of Indians were gathered at the agency, Little, who had been in hiding, walked boldly among them. He was arrested, struggled with police, and a crowd of warriors rushed to his rescue. American Horse calmly faced the excited mob. He asked them what they were going to do, urged them to think, and warned them that they were outnumbered and would be destroyed by the soldiers. His eloquence and timely intervention averted a potential massacre.
Legacy
American Horse was a staunch advocate for education, sending his son Samuel and nephew Robert to Carlisle Indian Industrial School. He was a councilor of his people and his policy was consistent and he was remembered for it.
