The landscape of Native American tribes in North America is complex and often misunderstood. Understanding the historical context and the nuances of tribal names, alliances, and government recognition is crucial to answering the question: Which, if any, of the following Indian tribes are extinct? This article will delve into the specific tribes mentioned in the initial inquiry, focusing on their historical presence, various names, current status, and relationship to the larger Native American landscape, especially within the context of the Wabanaki Confederacy.
The initial question, submitted by a researcher, focuses on the following tribes: Abenaki (with various spellings), Montagnais (Algonquin), Anagonges (Iroquois), Aquannaque (Huron), Bashaba, Gannongagehronnon (Mohawk), Moassones, Maweshenook, Narankamigdok, Natsagana (Caughnawaga), Obunego, Onagunga, Onnogonges, Opanango, Owenagunges, Owenunga, and Skacewanilom (Iroquois). The researcher also inquired about the federal recognition status of the Abenaki tribe. To address this comprehensively, it’s essential to understand the historical processes of tribal merging, name variations, and the criteria for federal recognition.
The Multifaceted Identity of the Abenaki
The original article indicates that the apparent multitude of tribes listed in the inquiry is largely a result of the various names and designations applied to the Abenaki people and their associated groups. The Abenaki, also known under spellings like Abenaqui, Abnaki, Alnanbal, Benaki, Oubenaki, Wabanaki, and Wippanap, are not extinct. They are a living, breathing culture with a complex history marked by adaptation and resilience.
The name "Abenaki" itself derives from a Montagnais (Algonquin) word meaning "those living at the sunrise," "those living at the east," "people of the dawn," or "easterners." The Abenaki referred to themselves as Alnanbal, meaning "men." These different names reflect the interactions between the Abenaki and other tribes, as well as European colonizers.
The French, for example, often referred to the Eastern Abenaki as "Loup" (wolves), while the Western Abenaki were known as the Sokoki. The English initially used "Tarrateen," a name for the Mahican, for both the Abenaki and the Micmac, later reserving it solely for the Micmac.
Other names for the Abenaki include Bashabas (referring to a band led by a principal chief named Bashaba), Gannongagehronnon (a Mohawk name), Moassones (possibly from a Penobscot name for their territory), Maweshenook ("berry place"), Narankamigdok ("villages of the Narankamigdog"), and Natsagana (a name given by the Caughnawaga Iroquois).
The terms Obunego, Onagungees, Onagunga, Owenagunges, Owenunga, Onnogonges, Opanango, Anagonges, and Skacewanilom are all variations of names given by the Iroquois. "Aquannaque" is the Huron pronunciation of Wabanaki.
The Wabanaki Confederacy and its Divisions
The Abenaki were a central part of the Wabanaki Confederacy, which also included the Maliseet, Passamaquoddy, Mi’kmaq, and Penobscot. The term "Wabanaki" shares an Algonquian root with "Abenaki," both meaning "people from the east." This confederacy extended across northern New England and into the Canadian Maritimes, with the Abenaki homeland, known as Ndakinna ("our land"), encompassing much of this territory.
The Confederacy was divided into several distinct groups:
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Abenaki Confederation Tribes: Including the Amaseconti, Androscoggin, Kennebec, Maliseet, Ouarastegouiak, Passamaquoddy, Patsuiket, Penobscot, Pigwacket, Rocameca, Sokoni, and Wewenoc.
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Eastern Abenaki: Located primarily in Maine and New Hampshire, including the Androscoggin, Kennebec, Ossipee, Penobscot, Pigwacket, Rocameca, and Wewenoc.
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Maritime Abenaki: Closely related to the Micmac, including the Maliseet and Passamaquoddy.
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Western Abenaki (Sokoki): Originally from Vermont and New Hampshire west of the White Mountains, including the Cowasuck, Hoosac, Missisquoi, Schaghticoke, Squakheag, and St. Francois.
The Montagnais and their Kin
The Montagnais, also spelled Montagnar, Moatagne, Montagnie, and Montainier, are an Algonquin group originally located in Labrador, Canada. Their name, given by the French, means "mountaineers." Closely related to the Naskapi, the Montagnais have since joined to form the Innu, with approximately 12,000 members living on reservations in Quebec. Therefore, the Montagnais, as a distinct group, have evolved into the larger Innu Nation, but their lineage and culture continue.
Impact of Disease and Warfare
The 17th and 18th centuries were devastating for the Abenaki and other Native American tribes. European diseases, such as smallpox, influenza, diphtheria, and measles, decimated populations. Up to 75% of Native Americans in New England perished due to these epidemics. Warfare with European colonists further reduced their numbers.
These calamities led to the merging of different tribes, blurring their distinct identities. Survivors from neighboring villages coalesced, making it difficult to trace specific tribal lineages. Descendants of various southern New England Algonquin tribes, such as the Pennacook, Narragansett, Pocumtuc, and Nipmuc, can be found among the Abenaki, especially the Sokoki. This merging has complicated efforts to achieve U.S. federal recognition.
Present-Day Locations and Federal Recognition
Today, Abenaki communities exist in both Canada and the United States. Many Abenaki retreated north into Quebec due to colonial settlement and warfare, forming communities at St. Francois and Becancour near Trois-Rivieres, which still exist.
In the United States, three sub-tribes have reservations and federal status in northern Maine: the Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, and the Houlton Band of Maliseet. There are also seven Maliseet reserves in New Brunswick and Quebec in Canada. Other Abenaki groups, without reservations or recognition, are scattered across northern New Hampshire and Vermont.
Approximately 2,000 Abenaki live on the two reserves in Quebec, while another 10,000 Abenaki descendants are scattered throughout New England. Only the Canadian Abenaki tribe is officially recognized. However, there are at least three Abenaki bands in the United States: the Sokoki and Mazipskwik Abenakis of Vermont and the Cowasucks of Massachusetts.
The Penobscot have a reservation on Indian Island at Old Town, Maine, with a tribal membership of nearly 2,000. The Passamaquoddy number around 2,500 on three Maine reservations: Pleasant Point, Peter Dana Point, and Indian Township. The Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians has close to 600 members.
Canada also has 400 Abenaki de Wolinak (Becancour) on a reserve near Trois-Rivieres, Quebec, and almost 1,500 at Odanak (St. Francois), 30 miles to the southwest.
The remaining Abenaki are dispersed among the general populations of Quebec, New Brunswick, and northern New England. Approximately 2,500 "Vermont Abenaki" live in Vermont and New Hampshire, primarily in northwest Vermont near Lake Champlain.
The Sokoki-St. Francis Band of the Abenaki Nation established a tribal council in 1976 at Swanton, Vermont. The state granted recognition that year but later withdrew it. They applied for federal recognition in 1982, which is still pending.
Conclusion
In conclusion, to address the initial question, none of the Indian tribes listed are entirely extinct in the sense of having no living descendants or cultural presence. While some, like the Montagnais, have evolved into larger, more inclusive groups like the Innu, their heritage persists. Many of the names listed are simply variations of the Abenaki or related Wabanaki tribes, who continue to exist, albeit with complex challenges related to recognition and cultural preservation. The answer to Which, if any, of the following Indian tribes are extinct? is a resounding none. The spirit and legacy of these tribes endure, a testament to their resilience in the face of immense historical adversity. The future of the Abenaki people, and other Native American tribes, depend on continued efforts of cultural preservation, language revitalization, and pursuit of federal recognition.