The term "Eskimo" has long been a widely used, yet often misunderstood and increasingly controversial, descriptor for the Indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of North America, Greenland, and parts of Siberia. Far from a monolithic group, these vibrant cultures comprise a diverse array of distinct nations, each with unique languages, traditions, and identities. Understanding "what is an Eskimo person" requires delving into their history, traditional ways of life, the impact of colonialism, and their contemporary struggles and triumphs, while acknowledging the problematic nature of the term itself.
The Term "Eskimo": A Problematic Legacy
The word "Eskimo" itself is a point of contention. Its exact etymology is debated, but the most widely accepted theory suggests it originates from an Algonquian language (likely Cree or Ojibwe), meaning "eater of raw meat." This term was applied by non-Indigenous peoples and has since been adopted into many European languages. However, it is often considered pejorative and offensive by many of the people it describes, particularly in Canada and Greenland, due to its foreign origin and perceived negative connotations.
For this reason, many Indigenous groups in the Arctic prefer to be identified by their specific names. The most prominent and widely recognized groups historically referred to as "Eskimo" are the Inuit and the Yupik.
- Inuit: This term, meaning "the people" in their language (Inuktitut), is widely preferred in Canada and Greenland. Canadian Inuit primarily inhabit the vast Arctic territories of Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, northern Quebec (Nunavik), and Labrador (Nunatsiavut). In Greenland, the Indigenous population refers to themselves as Kalaallit (meaning "Greenlanders" in Kalaallisut, their language), who are ethnically Inuit. Alaskan Inuit often identify as Iñupiat.
- Yupik: Predominantly found in southwestern Alaska and parts of the Russian Far East (Chukotka Peninsula), the Yupik people speak distinct languages and maintain unique cultural practices. Their name also translates to "real people."
While "Eskimo" might still appear in some historical texts or even self-identification by certain individuals, especially among Alaskan Yupik groups, the broader consensus among Indigenous rights organizations and cultural bodies is to use the specific, self-identified terms. As Mary Simon, Canada’s first Indigenous Governor General and a prominent Inuit leader, once stated, "It is crucial to respect the self-determination of Indigenous peoples to name themselves."
Geographic Spread and Environmental Adaptation
The peoples historically known as "Eskimo" inhabit some of the most challenging and remote environments on Earth: the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions. Their traditional lands span thousands of miles across the northern reaches of Canada, Alaska, Greenland, and Siberia, an unforgiving landscape characterized by permafrost, long periods of darkness, and extreme cold.
Despite these harsh conditions, these cultures developed remarkable ingenuity and resilience, adapting their entire way of life to thrive. Their survival hinged on a deep understanding of their environment and the animals that sustained them. Traditional subsistence revolved around hunting and fishing, targeting marine mammals like seals, whales (bowhead, beluga, narwhal), and walruses, as well as land animals such as caribou, muskox, and polar bears. Fish, particularly Arctic char and salmon, were also vital.
This adaptation extended to every aspect of life:
- Shelter: While the igloo (snow house) is an iconic image, it was primarily used as a temporary hunting shelter or for travel. Permanent traditional dwellings varied by region, including sod houses (qarmaq), skin tents (tupiq), and semi-subterranean houses built from stone, sod, and whalebone.
- Clothing: Sophisticated, multi-layered clothing made from caribou, seal, and polar bear furs, often featuring intricate designs and parkas with large hoods (amauti for women, designed to carry infants), provided unparalleled insulation against the bitter cold.
- Transportation: The qajaq (kayak), a lightweight, skin-covered boat for individual hunting, and the umiak, a larger open boat for transporting families and goods, were essential for navigating Arctic waters. On land, qamutiik (dog sleds) pulled by teams of dogs were the primary mode of winter travel.
- Tools: Traditional tools, crafted from bone, ivory, stone, and antler, were highly specialized for hunting, fishing, and daily tasks. Harpoons, lances, fishing nets, and ingenious traps demonstrate a profound understanding of mechanics and material science.
"Our ancestors didn’t just survive; they thrived in the Arctic," noted an Inuit Elder. "Their knowledge of the land, the sea, and the animals was our university, passed down through generations. That knowledge is still vital today."
Culture, Language, and Spirituality
The rich cultural tapestry of Inuit and Yupik peoples is woven with strong community bonds, oral traditions, and a profound spiritual connection to the land and animals. Storytelling, drum dancing, and throat singing are powerful forms of cultural expression, often conveying ancestral knowledge, myths, and ethical teachings. Art, particularly carving in soapstone, ivory, and bone, and printmaking, are globally recognized for their beauty and insight into Arctic life.
Language is a cornerstone of identity. The Inuit languages, collectively known as Inuktitut (or Inuktut), comprise several dialects spoken across the Arctic. Similarly, Yupik languages include Central Yup’ik, Alutiiq, and Siberian Yupik. These languages are rich in vocabulary describing the Arctic environment, snow, ice, and animal behaviors, reflecting a deep engagement with their surroundings. However, like many Indigenous languages globally, they face significant threats from assimilation policies and the dominance of colonial languages, prompting extensive revitalization efforts.
Traditional spiritual beliefs often centered on animism, the belief that spirits inhabit all living things and natural phenomena. Hunters maintained a respectful relationship with the animals they hunted, believing that the animal’s spirit would allow itself to be taken if properly honored. Shamans (Angakkuq) played crucial roles as spiritual healers, intermediaries between the human and spirit worlds, and keepers of sacred knowledge.
Historical Context: Contact, Colonialism, and Assimilation
The arrival of European explorers, whalers, traders, and missionaries from the 17th century onwards marked a dramatic turning point. While initial interactions could be mutually beneficial, the long-term impact of contact was devastating. Diseases to which Indigenous populations had no immunity decimated communities. The fur trade altered traditional economies, and the introduction of firearms changed hunting practices.
The 20th century saw intensified colonial policies aimed at assimilation. In Canada, Inuit children were forcibly removed from their families and sent to residential schools, where they were forbidden to speak their languages, practice their cultures, and often subjected to abuse. Similar policies were implemented in Alaska (boarding schools) and Greenland (Danish assimilation efforts). These policies caused intergenerational trauma, language loss, and severe social disruption.
During the Cold War, the strategic importance of the Arctic led to further disruptions. High Arctic Relocations in Canada saw Inuit families forcibly moved to remote, uninhabited islands to assert Canadian sovereignty, leading to immense hardship and loss of traditional ways.
Contemporary Challenges and Resilience
Today, Inuit and Yupik peoples face a complex array of modern challenges, often stemming from the legacy of colonialism and the rapid pace of global change.
- Climate Change: The Arctic is warming at a rate two to three times faster than the global average. This has profound implications for subsistence living. Thinning ice makes travel and hunting dangerous, unpredictable weather patterns disrupt traditional routes, and changes in animal migration affect food security. "Our elders say the ice is talking to us differently now," observed a young hunter. "It’s telling us that our way of life is under threat, and the world needs to listen."
- Socio-economic Disparities: Many Arctic communities grapple with high rates of poverty, unemployment, food insecurity (due to high costs of imported goods and challenges to traditional harvesting), inadequate housing, and limited access to healthcare and education. Mental health crises, including alarmingly high rates of suicide, are a tragic consequence of historical trauma and ongoing socio-economic pressures.
- Resource Extraction: The Arctic holds vast untapped natural resources (oil, gas, minerals). While resource development offers potential economic benefits, it also poses significant threats to traditional lands, waters, and wildlife, often leading to conflicts over land use and environmental protection.
- Cultural Preservation: Despite these challenges, there is a powerful movement for cultural revitalization. Language immersion programs, traditional skills workshops, Indigenous-led education initiatives, and the flourishing of Arctic arts are critical to strengthening identity and resilience.
Self-Determination and a Bright Future
In the face of these adversities, Inuit and Yupik peoples have demonstrated incredible resilience and a powerful commitment to self-determination. Significant strides have been made in achieving self-governance and asserting Indigenous rights.
- Nunavut: In Canada, the creation of Nunavut in 1999, an Inuit-governed territory covering one-fifth of Canada’s landmass, stands as a landmark achievement in self-determination. It aims to integrate Inuit societal values (Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit) into governance and public services.
- Greenland Home Rule: Greenland has had extensive home rule from Denmark since 1979, expanding to self-rule in 2009, giving its Kalaallit population significant autonomy over their affairs.
- Alaska Native Corporations: In Alaska, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971 established regional and village corporations, giving Alaska Natives ownership of land and resources, and a framework for economic development and cultural preservation.
These initiatives are empowering communities to shape their own futures, blend traditional knowledge with modern approaches, and advocate for their rights on the global stage, particularly concerning climate change and Arctic policy.
Conclusion
To ask "what is an Eskimo person" is to open a window into a world of profound cultural depth, enduring strength, and complex contemporary realities. It is to recognize that the term "Eskimo" is an outdated and often offensive generalization, overshadowing the distinct identities of the Inuit, Yupik, Iñupiat, Kalaallit, and other Arctic Indigenous peoples. These are not relics of the past but living, evolving cultures, actively engaged in preserving their heritage, navigating modern challenges, and asserting their rightful place as stewards of the Arctic and vital contributors to the global community. Understanding them requires shedding old terminology and embracing the richness and diversity of their self-identified nations, respecting their unique histories, and recognizing their unwavering spirit of resilience.
