The westward expansion of the United States in the 19th century witnessed a complex tapestry of interactions between various groups, including Native American tribes and African Americans. Amidst the forced removals and cultural clashes, a remarkable phenomenon emerged: the integration of formerly enslaved African Americans into Native American societies. These individuals, known as Freedmen, often found acceptance, opportunity, and even positions of leadership within their adopted tribes. Among the many notable figures in this history, Cow Tom of the Creek Nation stands out as a pivotal figure, a testament to resilience, diplomacy, and the blurring of racial lines in a turbulent era. Cow Tom’s story is inextricably linked to the history of the Creek Nation itself.
To omit Cow Tom from the historical narrative of the Muskogee Creek Nation is to disregard the significant influence he wielded and the crucial role he played. While his African ancestry may lead to his exclusion from some accounts, a comprehensive understanding of Muskogee Creek history necessitates acknowledging his presence and contributions. Ignoring him perpetuates the prejudice that led to the disenfranchisement of the Freedmen in 1979, an act that echoed the discriminatory Jim Crow laws of the past.
Cow Tom, alongside other prominent figures like Harry Island and Sugar George, embodied the intelligence, spirit, and leadership capabilities of African people within the Muskogee Nation. Born around 1810, he was initially enslaved by Yargee, a leader of the Upper Creeks in Alabama. As a young man, he was responsible for tending to Yargee’s cattle, earning him the moniker "Cow Tom," a name that would become synonymous with his legacy.
During the 1830s, the forced removal of Native American tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River, known as the Trail of Tears, impacted Cow Tom and his family. They journeyed westward with Yargee and his people, enduring the hardships and challenges of relocation. Tom’s value to Yargee grew significantly during this period, primarily due to his fluency in multiple languages, including English and the Muskogee language. While Yargee lacked proficiency in English, Tom possessed the linguistic skills necessary to navigate interactions with white settlers, traders, and government officials. Before the removal, Yargee even leased Tom’s services to the U.S. Army, earning over $300. Tom was assigned as an interpreter to a white officer and later reassigned to General Jessup, the commander of the military campaign in Florida.
Although other Black interpreters existed, author John H. Major described Cow Tom as the "Negro Creek" whom General Jessup trusted most. According to Major’s account, the "Negro Indians" were crucial to all official action, their presence and input as valuable as that of any high-ranking official.
Cow Tom possessed a keen understanding of the political landscape and recognized the potential benefits of westward relocation for both himself and the other Black people living among the Creeks. He astutely ensured that the military understood that these enslaved individuals were to accompany the Creeks on their journey west, effectively securing their freedom from their former white slave masters. In a similar vein to Abraham, a Black Seminole leader who advocated for the safety of Africans living among the Red Stick warriors (who later became Seminoles), Tom safeguarded the relocation of hundreds of Africans who moved alongside the Creeks.
Upon arrival in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), Chief Yargee increasingly relied on Cow Tom. Although he had initially worked as a cattleman, Tom’s primary role became that of a negotiator and interpreter for the chief. Since Yargee neither spoke nor desired to learn English, Tom’s ability to communicate with outsiders proved indispensable, further cementing his importance to the chief.
Ethan Allen Hitchcock, a military writer who kept a diary documenting his experiences in Indian Territory in 1842, frequently mentioned Cow Tom in his writings, noting how "the Negro" consistently spoke on behalf of the chief, who lacked English proficiency.
Through his services, Cow Tom eventually accumulated enough wealth to purchase his freedom from Yargee, as well as the freedom of his family. As a free man, he began receiving payment for his interpreting services, earning more than even the highest-paid blacksmith. He acquired land and livestock, establishing himself as a successful entrepreneur in the burgeoning territory.
Chief Yargee belonged to the Upper Creek clan, a group that largely resisted assimilation with white culture. They often clashed with the Lower Creeks, a faction comprised of individuals of mixed Creek and European ancestry who had embraced the customs and values of their white neighbors prior to relocation. It was the Lower Creeks who would later attempt to expel Black people from the nation and who readily signed a treaty with the Confederacy during the Civil War to protect their interests in chattel slavery.
The Lower Creeks persistently challenged the presence of Black people within the nation, culminating in their successful removal through a constitutional revision in 1979. This act occurred just a decade after the Civil Rights Movement and sought to erase individuals who had been part of their society for over 180 years.
Cow Tom found support and community among the Upper Creeks, who held more traditional values and maintained a distance from white settlers. In contrast, the Lower Creeks, with their stronger English proficiency and affinity for white Southern culture, had little need for Black interpreters.
During the Civil War, many people sought refuge in Kansas. However, Cow Tom remained in Indian Territory, largely isolated from the conflict. Following the Battle of Honey Springs, many Confederate Lower Creeks settled in the area, bringing with them a hostile attitude. As a result, Cow Tom and his family sought safety at Ft. Gibson, alongside other refugees. It was at Ft. Gibson that Cow Tom ascended to the position of chief within the Muskogee Nation. His fluency in both Muskogee and English made him indispensable to the military officers stationed at Ft. Gibson, who relied on him to communicate with the refugees. Likewise, the refugees depended on him to communicate with the white soldiers. He was not formally appointed chief but rather assumed the role out of necessity, filling a leadership void in the absence of other tribal chiefs.
A similar situation unfolded in Kansas, where Cow Tom‘s close friend, Harry Island, emerged as a vital interpreter for the refugees there. After the war, Cow Tom and Harry Island remained crucial interpreters for the nation. Before the war, a clear distinction existed between Creeks and Africans, masters and slaves. However, after the war, among the Upper Creeks, they became one people, with the indigenous Creeks now dependent on Union soldiers who spoke only English.
Former slaves and indigenous people were forced to rebuild their lives together in a war-torn world. The military needed to conduct business in an orderly manner, issuing instructions to those who did not speak English. Cow Tom‘s role was thus essential to all.
Following the war, when the nation reassembled, Chief Sands officially appointed Cow Tom as a chief. Harry Island served nearby as the official interpreter for the U.S. Army. When leaders of the nation traveled to Ft. Smith to negotiate the official peace treaties, the Creek Nation stood out as the only one of the four nations to include Black people in an official capacity.
However, Cow Tom faced opposition from the Confederate Creeks, led by Sam Checote. Cow Tom, Harry Island, and others had to remain vigilant, as these mixed-blood Creeks were determined to erase all traces of Black people from their nation.
Driven by a belief in racial superiority, their influence was strong. Cow Tom, along with Ketch Barnett and Harry Island, secretly traveled to Washington D.C., without the knowledge of their Creek brethren, to ensure that their people would be treated fairly and included in the benefits extended to the citizens of the Nation. A census that excluded the Freedmen had already been conducted, prompting the three men to act swiftly and advocate for the rights and inclusion of the Freedmen. These rights would remain in place until the late 1970s, when the nation implemented a system of segregation, effectively disenfranchising people who had been part of their nation for over 180 years.
A faction of Lower Creeks followed Cow Tom, Ketch Barnett, and Harry Island to Washington, D.C., to argue against the integration of Black people into the nation. Their primary concern was that the inclusion of Black people would dilute the funds allocated to their nation. Despite their efforts, the Creek Freedmen were granted citizenship, land allotments, and citizen status.
Cow Tom eventually retired to a quiet life of farming, family, and cattle ranching. He became the patriarch of the Simmons Oil Family of Oklahoma. Oil magnate Jake Simmons is Cow Tom’s grandson. The legacy of this influential African Creek leader lives on through the tenacity, intelligence, and insightfulness of his descendants.
The diligence and ambition exhibited by many Black Oklahomans stemmed from the spirit of Cow Tom, who inspired African Creeks, African Cherokees, African Seminoles, African Choctaws, and African Choctaws to achieve success. Cow Tom, Sugar George, Harry Island, and many others left behind legacies of human achievement, dignity, and pride.
The citizens of the Indian Territory of the Oklahoma Black Indians prospered due to the achievements of Cow Tom, instilling a strong sense of self-esteem in Black Indian culture. Although the name Cow Tom has faded from common usage, his spirit continues to resonate today.
Cow Tom passed away in 1874 and is buried with his wife, Amy, in the Cain Creek cemetery.