The San Carlos Apache Tribe of the San Carlos Reservation, a federally recognized tribe, resides in southeastern Arizona on a landscape steeped in history and resilience. Established in 1872, the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation was originally designated for the Ndeh, also known as the Chiricahua Apache. The early years of the reservation were marked by immense challenges, leading to its grim nickname, "Hell’s Forty Acres," a testament to the harsh health and environmental conditions prevalent at the time. Today, the San Carlos Apache people continue to thrive, preserving their culture and traditions while navigating the complexities of the modern world.
A Land of Contrasts
The San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation spans across Gila, Graham, and Pinal Counties, encompassing a diverse topography that ranges from verdant alpine meadows to arid desert landscapes. This vast territory, established by executive order on November 9, 1871, offers a rich tapestry of natural resources and ecological significance.
Over one-third of the reservation’s land is covered by forests (approximately 175,000 acres) and woodlands (approximately 665,000 acres). This extensive forested area, characterized by its complex topography, provides an ideal habitat for a wide array of wildlife species. Elk, mule deer, turkeys, black bears, and mountain lions find refuge and sustenance within the reservation’s boundaries. Notably, a significant portion of the reservation is contiguous with the world’s largest continuous stand of ponderosa pine trees, underscoring its ecological importance.
Historical Context and Key Figures
The San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation holds a prominent place in Apache history, having served as a site of both confinement and resistance. Following his surrender in 1873, the legendary Chief Cochise and his followers were relocated to the reservation. However, the reservation also witnessed acts of defiance, most notably when Geronimo led his people in a series of escapes in 1881 and 1884, seeking freedom from the perceived oppression of the U.S. military.
The creation of the reservation in 1871 was followed by multiple reductions in its size, driven by the demands of white miners seeking copper and silver, as well as the water needs of Mormon settlers in the Gila Valley. These reductions underscore the historical pressures exerted upon the San Carlos Apache people and their ancestral lands.
The Apache bands residing on the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation represent a diverse array of cultural and linguistic groups, including the Aravaipa, Chiricahua, Coyotero, Mimbreno, Mogollon, Pinaleno, San Carlos, and Tonto. While a significant number of Chiricahua Apaches now reside on the Mescalero Reservation in southeastern New Mexico, a smaller community continues to live at Fort Sill, Oklahoma.
Demographics and Governance
The San Carlos Apache Tribe’s land base encompasses 1,834,781 acres, resulting in a population density of approximately 3 persons per square mile. As of the 2010 Census, the registered population of the tribe was 10,068, with estimates suggesting a population of approximately 12,000 in 2015.
The San Carlos Apache Tribe operates under a federally recognized tribal government, established in accordance with the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 (also known as the Wheeler-Howard Act). This act granted the tribe a degree of self-governance, allowing them to manage their internal affairs and resources. The tribe successfully resisted attempts by the U.S. government to terminate its tribal status during the 1950s, demonstrating its commitment to self-determination.
While the Wheeler-Howard Act provided a framework for tribal governance, it has also been criticized for imposing an alien system of governance upon Native people, potentially undermining traditional forms of leadership and decision-making. This has led to concerns about the influence of acculturated factions within tribal governments and the potential for exploitation of tribal resources.
Cultural Heritage and Traditions
The Apache people are descendants of the Athabascan family, who migrated to the Southwest around the 10th century. The Ndeh people maintain a clan system that dates back over 10,000 years, reflecting a deep connection to their ancestral heritage.
The Apache tribes are classified into several bands, including the Chiricahua (Ndeh), Jicarilla, Lipan, Mescalero, Plains Apache, and Western Apache. The Navajo, originally considered an Apachean group, are now recognized as a separate tribe.
Family plays a central role in Apache social and political life. Traditionally, Apache tribes were not politically unified, and individual extended family groups operated independently. These groups, connected by dialect, customs, intermarriage, and geographical proximity, would occasionally come together under specific circumstances. However, they rarely acted as a unified tribal division or nation, even in the face of external threats.
This decentralized social structure made it challenging for colonizing powers, such as the Spanish, Mexicans, and Americans, to negotiate with the Apache Nation as a whole, requiring them to engage with each individual group separately.
Cultural Practices and Artistic Expression
Traditional Apache arts and crafts reflect a deep connection to the natural world and a rich cultural heritage. Fine basketry, pottery, and tanned hides were essential components of daily life. Baskets were used for a variety of purposes, including water storage, cradles, storage containers, and burden carrying. Gourd spoons, dippers, and dishes were also common household items. The people crafted musical instruments from gourds and hooves, and developed the "Apache fiddle," a post-contact instrument played with a bow on strings.
San Carlos Apache women are particularly renowned for their twined burden baskets, which are created in both full size and miniature versions. Coiled basketry, featuring intricate designs in black devil’s claw, is another specialty of the region.
The introduction of the horse in the 17th century had a profound impact on Apache culture, transforming their hunting and raiding practices.
Subsistence and Economy
Historically, the Chiricahua Apaches were primarily hunters and gatherers, relying on a diverse range of resources for sustenance. They hunted buffalo prior to the 16th century, and continued to hunt deer, elk, antelope, rabbits, and other game. They did not consume bear, turkey, or fish.
Wild foods played a crucial role in their diet, including agave, cactus shoots, flowers, and fruit, berries, seeds, nuts, honey, wild onions, potatoes, and grasses. Nuts and seeds were often ground into flour. The agave, or century plant, was particularly important, with its base baked in rock-lined pits to create mescal, a sweet and nutritious food that could be dried and stored.
Traditional farm crops were obtained through trade or raids with Pueblo communities. The Chiricahua, particularly the Eastern Band, also engaged in some agriculture, growing corn for the production of tiswin, a weak beer.
Today, farming and ranching continue to provide employment for many Apaches, who have also excelled as professional rodeo performers. However, economic challenges persist, with a significant portion of the population living below the poverty line. The San Carlos Apache Tribe is actively working to diversify its economy through tourism, gaming, and resource management.
The San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation operates the Apache Gold Casino, and several recreational activities such as the Apache Stronghold Golf Course, and the San Carlos Recreation and Wildlife Department.
Spiritual Beliefs and Ceremonies
The Apache people hold deep spiritual beliefs, expressed through prayer and reverence for the natural world. Their religion is based on a complex mythology featuring numerous deities, with the sun considered the greatest source of power. Culture heroes, such as White-Painted Woman and her son, Child of the Water, also play a prominent role, as do protective mountain spirits (ga’an). Masked dancers representing the ga’an are featured in ceremonies such as the four-day girls’ puberty rite, reflecting a possible Pueblo influence.
Supernatural power is both the goal and the medium of most Apache ceremonialism. Shamans facilitate the acquisition of power, which can be used in the service of war, luck, rainmaking, or life-cycle events. Power could be both benevolent and malevolent, and witchcraft, as well as incest, were considered unpardonable offenses.
The Apache believe that all living things were once people, and that they are simply following in the footsteps of those who have gone before.
Modern Day Events and Tourism
The San Carlos Apache Tribe of the San Carlos Reservation offers a variety of attractions and events for visitors interested in experiencing Apache culture and history. The San Carlos Apache Cultural Center showcases the tribe’s history from their own perspective, featuring the "Window on Apache Culture" exhibit.
Outdoor enthusiasts can explore the Tonto National Forest, managed in part by the San Carlos Apache Tribe, and enjoy fishing and hunting in the reservation’s lakes and wilderness areas. The San Carlos Recreation and Wildlife Department issues permits for these activities.
Annual events such as the Apache Independence Day Celebration, the Apache "Jii" Celebration, and the San Carlos Apache Tribal Fair provide opportunities to celebrate Apache culture and community.
A Legacy of Resilience
The San Carlos Apache Tribe of the San Carlos Reservation has endured numerous challenges throughout its history, from forced relocation and land reductions to economic hardship and cultural assimilation. Despite these obstacles, the tribe has persevered, maintaining its cultural identity, strengthening its self-governance, and working towards a brighter future for its people. The story of the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation is a testament to the resilience, adaptability, and enduring spirit of the Apache people.