The Pueblo of Acoma, steeped in history and resilience, stands as a testament to the enduring spirit of its people. Situated approximately 60 miles west of Albuquerque, New Mexico, this vibrant community comprises three principal settlements: Sky City (Old Acoma), Acomita, and McCartys. While the traditional Acoma lands once encompassed a vast expanse of approximately 5 million acres, the present-day reservation accounts for roughly 10 percent of this ancestral domain. This dramatic reduction underscores the historical pressures and land encroachments faced by the Pueblo people.
Geographically, the Pueblo of Acoma is often categorized within the Western Pueblos, a designation that distinguishes it from the Rio Grande Pueblos, also known as the Eastern Pueblos. The Western Pueblos typically include Zuni, Hopi, and sometimes Laguna, alongside Acoma. This classification, while useful, should not overshadow the unique cultural identity and traditions of each individual Pueblo.
The Identity of the Pueblo: Names and Meanings
The official tribal name is simply Pueblo of Acoma. The term "Acoma" itself has rich etymological roots, originating from the Acoma language and adapted into Spanish. It is derived from "acoma" or "acú," signifying "the place that always was" or "People of the White Rock." This name evokes a sense of timelessness and a deep connection to the land, particularly the prominent mesa upon which Sky City is built.
The term "Pueblo," borrowed from the Spanish language, translates to "village" or "town." It has come to denote both a distinctive architectural style characterized by multi-story structures constructed from stone and adobe, and the Indigenous peoples who built and inhabit these settlements.
Throughout history, the Pueblo of Acoma has been referred to by various names and spellings, including Akome, Aká’o Ma, Aa’ku meh, and simply Pueblo. These alternate names reflect the complexities of historical interactions and linguistic variations.
Geographic and Political Landscape
The Pueblo of Acoma resides within the Southwest region of the United States, specifically in the state of New Mexico. As a member of the Puebloan cultural group, the Acoma share certain cultural and linguistic affinities with other Pueblo tribes, though each Pueblo maintains its distinct identity and governance.
Unlike many other Native American tribes, the Pueblo peoples, including the Acoma, did not sign treaties with the United States government. This unique historical circumstance has shaped the legal and political relationship between the Pueblos and the federal government.
The Acoma reservation comprises Acoma Pueblo proper, along with off-trust lands. The land area encompasses approximately 500,000 acres, providing the Acoma people with a land base for their cultural, economic, and residential needs.
Population Dynamics
Estimates suggest that the Acoma population at the time of initial contact with Europeans, around 1550, was approximately 5,000 individuals. By 1990, the tribal enrollment stood at roughly 4,000, with 2,548 residing within the Pueblo of Acoma itself. These figures reflect the demographic shifts and challenges faced by the Acoma people throughout history.
Governance and Political Structure
The Pueblo of Acoma possesses a unique system of governance that blends traditional Indigenous practices with elements introduced during the Spanish colonial period. Since 1680, the Acoma have been a member of the All Indian Pueblo Council, an intertribal organization that advocates for the rights and interests of the Pueblo peoples.
The cacique, a theological appointment originating from the Antelope clan, plays a central role in Acoma governance. The cacique appoints members of the tribal council, the governor, and their staff. This reflects the theocratic nature of Pueblo government, where religious and political authority are closely intertwined.
Parallel to the traditional leadership structure, the Spanish authorities imposed a system of officials that dealt primarily with external matters. This included a governor, two lieutenant governors, and a council. While this structure was less powerful than the traditional leadership, it nonetheless influenced the political landscape of the Pueblo.
Language and Linguistic Heritage
The language spoken by the Acoma people belongs to the Keres language family, a dialect cluster spoken by the Keres Pueblo people in New Mexico. The varieties of each of the seven Keres Pueblos are mutually intelligible with their closest neighbors. Keres is a language isolate, meaning it has no known linguistic relatives. Linguists have proposed various connections to other language families, but none of these proposals have gained widespread consensus. The Western dialect is spoken at Acoma.
While almost all Acoma people speak both Acoma and English, and many older individuals also speak Spanish, the preservation of the Keres language remains a vital aspect of Acoma cultural identity.
Origins and Ancestral Connections
The Pueblo peoples are believed to be descendants of Ancestral Puebloans, as well as potentially Mogollon, and other ancient cultures. These ancestral groups contributed significantly to the development of Puebloan architecture, farming techniques, pottery traditions, and basketry skills. The ability to effectively cultivate land and store food surpluses allowed for larger population groups and a more stable existence, which in turn fostered the development of religion, arts, and crafts.
According to Acoma and Laguna oral traditions, their ancestors once lived on an island off the coast of California. Catastrophic events, such as high waves, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions, forced them to flee and eventually migrate inland to the north. During their migrations, they built traditional "White Cities" made of whitewashed adobe, which served as temporary settlements.
In the 1200s, the Ancestral Puebloans abandoned their traditional canyon homelands due to climatic and social upheavals. Following a period of migrations, their culture gradually reemerged in the historic Pueblos. Acoma Pueblo itself was established at least 800 years ago, solidifying its status as one of the oldest continuously inhabited communities in the United States.
Social Organization: Clans and Kinship
Acoma Pueblo originally recognized approximately twenty matrilineal clans, each playing a significant role in the social fabric of the community. Clanship affiliations remain an important aspect of Pueblo culture, providing a framework for social organization and kinship ties. Today, nineteen clans remain, each organized by social function.
Modern Day Life and Cultural Preservation
Today, the Acoma people continue to reside in the ancestral lands, balancing traditional ways of life with the challenges of the modern world. The Sky City, with its traditional adobe architecture, stands as a living museum and a powerful symbol of Acoma history and resilience.
Several seasonal feasts and ceremonial dances are open to the public, offering visitors a glimpse into Acoma culture. However, it is essential to respect the privacy and traditions of the Pueblo people. Photography and sketching are generally discouraged, and visitors should always inquire about rules and regulations before capturing images or drawing.
Economic Activities and Challenges
The Acoma economy has evolved over time, from a primarily agricultural base to a more diversified model. Today, the Acoma people grow alfalfa, oats, wheat, corn, chilies, melon, squash, vegetables, and some fruits. They also raise cattle. The reservation has resources such as coal, geothermal energy, and natural gas. Tourism, driven by the allure of Sky City and the associated visitor’s center, is a significant source of revenue. Arts and crafts, including pottery, silverwork, leatherwork, and beadwork, contribute to individual income.
Despite these economic opportunities, the Acoma people face significant challenges. The closure of nearby uranium mines in the 1980s resulted in high unemployment rates and a legacy of radiation pollution. This pollution has contributed to health problems and the contamination of tribal fishing lakes.
Spiritual Beliefs and Cultural Practices
Religion and spiritual beliefs are deeply ingrained in Acoma culture. The Acoma people have an intricate religious system that includes hundreds of katsina (kachina) Gods. Sacred ceremonies are kept private, and outsiders are generally discouraged from photographing or observing them.
Acoma’s traditional education system, overseen by the kiva headmen, provides instruction in various aspects of human existence, including behavior, spirit, body, ethics, astrology, child psychology, oratory, history, music, and dance. Many traditional ceremonies are still performed, and the religion and language remain largely intact, reflecting a conscious effort to maintain continuity with the past.
Historical Encounters and Transformations
The Pueblo of Acoma has experienced a long and complex history of interactions with outside forces. The first non-Indian contact occurred in 1539, followed by the arrival of Coronado’s expedition in 1540. In 1598, Juan de Oñate established the colony of New Mexico, initiating a period of Spanish colonization and cultural exchange.
The Spanish introduced new crops, such as peaches, wheat, and peppers, and established missions to convert the Acoma people to Catholicism. However, Spanish rule was often harsh, marked by forced labor, religious persecution, and land encroachments.
In 1680, the Pueblo peoples, including the Acoma, united in a revolt against the Spanish, driving them from the region for a period of twelve years. Although the Spanish reconquered Santa Fe in 1692, their rule was less severe thereafter.
The Mexican period (1821-1848) brought little immediate change to the Pueblos, while the subsequent arrival of the United States led to increased acculturation and challenges to Pueblo land rights. In the 20th century, the All Indian Pueblo Council played a crucial role in protecting Pueblo lands and cultural traditions.
The Pueblo of Acoma stands as a living testament to the resilience, cultural richness, and enduring spirit of its people. By preserving their language, traditions, and connection to the land, the Acoma people continue to thrive in the face of ongoing challenges.