Ohiyesa, also known as Charles Alexander Eastman, was a Santee Dakota physician, writer, reformer, and public intellectual who lived from 1858 to 1939. He dedicated his life to bridging the gap between the Native American world and the encroaching Western culture of the United States. Through his writings, lectures, and activism, Ohiyesa offered invaluable insights into the traditions, values, and spiritual beliefs of the Sioux people. His book, "The Soul of the Indian," published in 1911, remains a seminal work in Native American literature, providing a firsthand account of Sioux life before the profound cultural shifts brought about by colonization. This article delves into the heart of Sioux tribal traditions as described by Ohiyesa, drawing primarily from his book, to illuminate the spiritual depth, moral code, and unique worldview that characterized this vibrant culture. This article will shed light on the Sioux tribal traditions as Ohiyesa experienced them.
Spirituality: The Great Mystery and Reverence for Nature
At the core of Sioux life was a profound connection to the "Great Mystery," a term used to describe the supreme being or spiritual force that permeated all of creation. Ohiyesa emphasizes that worship was a deeply personal and solitary experience. There were no intermediaries, no priests dictating how one should connect with the divine. Individuals sought communion with the Great Mystery through silent contemplation and observation of the natural world. Speech was considered inadequate to express the depth of spiritual feeling.
This reverence for nature was central to Sioux spirituality. The Sioux saw the natural world as a manifestation of the Great Mystery, with the Sun and Earth considered the parents of all life. Elements like lightning, wind, water, fire, and frost were recognized as powerful spiritual forces. The belief that spirit pervaded all creation extended to animals, plants, and even inanimate objects like rocks and waterfalls. Each was seen as possessing a soul in some degree and therefore deserving of respect.
Ohiyesa explains the Sioux practice of seeking spiritual communion with animals, viewing them as brothers and sisters in creation. They believed animals possessed a pure, innocent wisdom, a gift from the Great Mystery. Hunters, while acknowledging their need to take animal life for sustenance, expressed gratitude and reverence to the animal’s spirit through prayers and offerings, ensuring that the animal’s spirit was treated with honor.
Every aspect of daily life was imbued with spiritual significance. The Sioux did not set aside one day for worship; every day was sacred. A breathtaking sunset, a powerful waterfall, or a dramatic thunderstorm were all occasions for spontaneous reverence and recognition of the Great Mystery’s presence.
Death and the Soul’s Journey
The Sioux attitude toward death reflected their deep understanding of the cyclical nature of life. Death was not feared but embraced as a natural transition. The Sioux believed in the immortality of the soul and viewed death as a journey to the spirit world. Ohiyesa writes that death was met with simplicity and calm, with the dying individual seeking an honorable end as a final gift to their family.
Traditional customs surrounding death included carrying the dying person outdoors so their spirit could depart under the open sky. Some Sioux believed in reincarnation and claimed to have memories of past lives. Others spoke of a "twin spirit" born into another tribe or race, suggesting a profound interconnectedness of all beings.
The Power of Silence
Silence held immense significance in Sioux culture. Ohiyesa describes it as the "absolute poise or balance of body, mind, and spirit," a state of perfect equilibrium. It was seen as a sign of humility and a recognition of the limitations of human speech in the face of the Great Mystery.
Silence was not merely the absence of sound but a powerful tool for self-control, courage, patience, dignity, and reverence. It was considered the cornerstone of character, allowing individuals to connect with their inner selves and the spiritual forces around them. To the Sioux, the holy silence was the voice of the Great Mystery itself.
Early Religious Teachings and the Role of the Mother
Religious instruction began in the womb. Expectant mothers observed silence and solitude, meditating on the Great Mystery and developing a sense of connection with all creation. The mother’s thoughts and emotions were believed to directly influence the developing child’s soul.
The birthing process was considered a sacred and solitary event, a testament to the mother’s strength and connection to nature. After birth, the mother continued to nurture the child’s spiritual awareness through songs, stories, and gentle guidance. Nature served as the primary teacher, with birds, trees, and water embodying the presence of the Great Mystery.
The mother taught the child to respect the spirits, to listen to the voices of nature, and to understand their place within the interconnected web of life. Silence, love, and reverence were the core principles instilled from an early age, followed by generosity, courage, and chastity.
Medicine and Healing
The Sioux understanding of medicine was deeply intertwined with spirituality. Healers, or "medicine men," were highly respected members of the community who possessed extensive knowledge of medicinal plants and their properties. They used herbs and natural remedies to treat physical ailments but also recognized the importance of mental and spiritual well-being.
The Sioux word for healing, "wah-pee-yah," meant readjusting or making anew, suggesting a holistic approach to health that addressed imbalances in the body, mind, and spirit. The "medicine-man" sought to reestablish equilibrium through mental and spiritual influences. Traditionally, healers did not receive payment for their services, which were considered a sacred duty. The introduction of payment and barter led to the rise of unscrupulous "conjurers" who exploited the sick for personal gain. Ohiyesa Speaks of Sioux tribal traditions here.
Animal Spirits and Totems
The Sioux people sought to establish spiritual comradeship with the animal kingdom, adopting certain animals as totems or emblems of their society, family, or clan. These sacred animals, represented by their skins or paintings, were treated with reverence and believed to offer spiritual guidance and protection.
The symbolic attributes of the animal, such as the beaver’s wisdom, the bear’s courage, or the tortoise’s cunning, were believed to be transferred to the wearer of the totem. Totems were also used in medicine, representing the medicine lodge to which the practitioner belonged.
Civilization and its Discontents
Ohiyesa reflects on the Sioux people’s reluctance to embrace a sedentary, materialistic lifestyle. He argues that the concentration of population leads to moral and physical degradation. The Sioux valued solitude and the ability to connect with nature, believing that these experiences fostered spiritual strength and self-possession. Ohiyesa viewed close contact with others as draining of spiritual power.
Marriage: A Sacred Union in Nature
Marriage was regarded as a sacred union, not marked by religious ceremony but by a deep spiritual connection between two individuals. Young couples would retreat into the wilderness for days or weeks to experience their union in solitude and communion with nature. The nuptial blessing was bestowed by nature itself.
The Role of Women
Ohiyesa emphasizes the high status of women in Sioux society. Women were the keepers of moral standards and the guardians of blood purity. They held family property, and descent was traced through the maternal line. Women were respected for their modesty, wisdom, and courage, and some even participated in tribal councils. The moral and spiritual strength of the Sioux people was inextricably linked to the well-being and honor of their women.
Generosity and Giving
Giving was an integral part of Sioux culture, woven into ceremonies celebrating birth, marriage, and death. Individuals often gave away all their possessions to honor others, especially the poor and the elderly. Orphans and the aged were cared for by the entire community, reflecting a strong sense of collective responsibility.
Names: Reflections of Character and Spirituality
Sioux names were carefully chosen to reflect an individual’s character, deeds, or spiritual significance. Names were often inspired by nature, such as Buffalo, Lightning, Swift Bird, or Blue Sky. Dignified or spiritually significant names were conferred by elders and passed down through generations, with each individual expected to prove worthy of the name.
Moral Standards: Truth and Honesty
Truthfulness was highly valued in Sioux society. Lying was considered a grave offense, punishable by death in earlier times. The Sioux believed that honesty was essential for maintaining trust and harmony within the community.
Property and Labor
The Sioux did not place a high value on material possessions or monetary gain. Generosity and service to others were highly esteemed. While individuals had rights to personal property, food was freely shared with the hungry. Stealing was considered a grave offense, punishable by social ostracism.
Warfare: A Trial of Courage and Skill
Warfare was regarded as a structured contest, a trial of courage and skill governed by strict rules. It was motivated by chivalry and patriotism, not by territorial expansion or conquest. Wanton cruelty and barbarous customs were intensified by the arrival of white settlers, who introduced alcohol and deadly weapons.
Courage and Self-Control
Courage was a highly valued virtue, defined not as aggression but as absolute self-control. The truly brave individual remained calm in the face of fear, anger, desire, and pain. This concept of courage extended to acts of chivalry, patriotism, and heroism.
Moral Standards: A Lasting Legacy
Ohiyesa concludes by reflecting on the simple yet profound moral lessons he learned from his mother and the natural world. He laments the artificiality of modern society and the loss of connection to nature. He expresses hope that the values of simplicity, reverence, bravery, and uprightness that characterized the Sioux people will continue to inspire future generations. He seeks to remember justly the past, so the Sioux tribal traditions are not forgotten.
Ohiyesa’s writings provide a valuable glimpse into the rich and complex culture of the Sioux people. His words offer a powerful reminder of the importance of spirituality, respect for nature, and the enduring values of honesty, generosity, and courage. His insights into Sioux tribal traditions remain relevant today, offering lessons for building a more just and sustainable world.