Lumbee Tribe: North Carolina Heritage & Identity Persistence
In the heart of southeastern North Carolina, a remarkable story of endurance, identity, and unwavering spirit unfolds. The Lumbee Tribe, numbering over 55,000, represents the largest Native American tribe east of the Mississippi River, yet they navigate a unique and often challenging path as one of the largest Indigenous groups in the United States without full federal recognition. Their narrative is not one of a people waiting for external validation, but of a vibrant community that has fiercely preserved its distinct heritage and identity against centuries of adversity, making their home in Robeson County a testament to their persistence.
The Lumbee story is deeply rooted in the fertile lands of what is now Robeson County. Their ancestry is complex, generally understood to be descendants of various Siouan-speaking tribes such as the Cheraw and Saponi, as well as remnants of the Tuscarora, who coalesced in the aftermath of colonial expansion and conflict. These disparate groups found common ground and forged a new, unified identity, adapting to the pressures of an encroaching settler society while maintaining strong ties to their ancestral lands and traditions. By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the community was recognized by their neighbors as "Indian," distinct from both white and Black populations, though their specific tribal designation would evolve over time.
This early self-identification as "Indian" was critical, setting the stage for a continuous struggle against external attempts to define or erase them. Unlike many federally recognized tribes, the Lumbee did not sign treaties with the U.S. government, nor were they subjected to forced removal to reservations in the West. Instead, they carved out an existence on their ancestral lands, establishing their own institutions, churches, and schools, and building a cohesive community that fostered a strong sense of collective identity. This unique historical trajectory has often been used by opponents of federal recognition to question their Indigenous status, ignoring the profound and unbroken continuity of their self-governance and cultural practices.
The fight for federal recognition is the defining political struggle for the Lumbee Tribe, a battle that has spanned over a century and been marked by legislative setbacks and bureaucratic hurdles. Federal recognition would grant the Lumbee the same rights and access to federal programs and services that other recognized tribes receive, including healthcare, education, housing, and economic development opportunities. More importantly, it would affirm their inherent sovereignty and correct a historical injustice.
In 1956, the U.S. Congress passed the Lumbee Act, which acknowledged the Lumbee people as "Indians" but explicitly denied them the benefits of federal recognition. This act, often referred to as "termination-lite," was a bitter pill. It recognized their racial identity but stripped them of the inherent rights and sovereign status that accompany full tribal recognition. "The 1956 Act was a compromise, but it was a deeply flawed one," explains Dr. Malinda Maynor Lowery, a Lumbee historian and filmmaker. "It affirmed who we are, but denied us the tools to fully exercise our sovereignty and address the disparities our community faces."
The reasons for the ongoing denial are multifaceted and complex, often rooted in political expediency, historical misinterpretations, and a stringent federal recognition process that was not designed for tribes like the Lumbee, who did not follow the standard treaty-reservation model. Opponents have often argued that the Lumbee cannot definitively prove their ancestral ties to specific pre-colonial tribes or that their community formed too late to be considered "aboriginal." These arguments fail to acknowledge the historical reality of Indigenous peoples adapting and coalescing in response to colonization, and the fact that the Lumbee have consistently identified as Indian for generations, as evidenced by census records, state documents, and community narratives.
Despite the lack of full federal recognition, the Lumbee have thrived culturally and socially. Their identity is not a product of federal decree but a legacy woven into the fabric of their daily lives, sustained through powerful community bonds, shared traditions, and a fierce pride in their heritage. The University of North Carolina at Pembroke (UNCP), originally founded in 1887 as the Croatan Normal School for the education of Indian children, stands as a beacon of Lumbee culture and education. It has played an instrumental role in nurturing generations of Lumbee leaders, educators, and professionals, serving as a vital institution for both academic excellence and cultural preservation. UNCP’s presence underscores the Lumbee’s enduring commitment to self-determination through education.
Cultural events like the annual Lumbee Homecoming, held every summer, draw thousands of Lumbee people back to Robeson County, transforming Pembroke into a vibrant hub of celebration. It is a week-long festival featuring powwows, pageants, gospel sings, and family reunions, all celebrating Lumbee identity and community. These gatherings are crucial for intergenerational knowledge transfer, reinforcing cultural norms, and strengthening the collective memory of the tribe. Storytelling, a rich oral tradition, continues to be a powerful vehicle for transmitting history, values, and life lessons, connecting contemporary Lumbee youth to their ancestors. While a distinct Lumbee language has largely been lost due to historical pressures, there are ongoing efforts to document and revive elements of ancestral languages and to promote cultural awareness through education.
Perhaps no event better illustrates the Lumbee’s indomitable spirit and their refusal to be intimidated than the "Battle of Hayes Pond" in January 1958. On a cold, dreary night, members of the Ku Klux Klan, led by Grand Dragon James W. "Catfish" Cole, attempted to hold a rally in Maxton, North Carolina, aiming to intimidate the Lumbee and "put them in their place." Cole had previously threatened the Lumbee, accusing them of "mongrelization" and asserting white supremacy.
What the Klan encountered, however, was not a terrified populace, but a determined and armed Lumbee community. Hundreds of Lumbee men, women, and children, alerted to the Klan’s plans, gathered at Hayes Pond, ready to defend their homes and dignity. As the Klansmen began their rally, holding burning crosses, the Lumbee surged forward. Shots were fired, mostly into the air, and the Klansmen were overwhelmed, their robes torn, their rally dispersed, and their pride shattered. Grand Dragon Cole fled into the swamp, leaving behind his public address system and a phonograph playing "Dixie." The event was a national humiliation for the KKK and a moment of triumphant self-defense for the Lumbee. As Julian T. Pierce, a prominent Lumbee lawyer and activist, once remarked, "That night, the Lumbees declared, ‘We are not going to be intimidated. We are not going to be scared.’" The Battle of Hayes Pond became a powerful symbol of Lumbee resilience and their refusal to yield to racial hatred.
Today, the Lumbee continue to face challenges. Robeson County, while culturally rich, is one of the poorest counties in North Carolina, with persistent issues of economic disparity, healthcare access, and educational attainment. The lack of federal recognition exacerbates these problems, denying the tribe access to vital resources and economic development opportunities that could significantly improve the quality of life for its members. The ongoing opioid crisis, for instance, disproportionately affects Native American communities, and the Lumbee’s inability to access federal tribal health services puts an added strain on local resources.
Yet, in the face of these obstacles, the Lumbee are moving forward. They are actively engaged in economic development initiatives, fostering entrepreneurship within the community, and advocating for policies that support their self-sufficiency. Lumbee leaders are prominent in local and state politics, ensuring their voices are heard in legislative chambers. The tribe continues its relentless pursuit of federal recognition, adapting its strategies and building alliances in Congress, ever hopeful that justice will prevail.
The Lumbee Tribe’s story is a profound testament to the power of a people to define themselves, to hold onto their heritage, and to persist against formidable odds. Their identity is not contingent upon external validation but is an inherent, living truth passed down through generations. They stand as a powerful example of Indigenous resilience in America, a community that has not only survived but thrived, maintaining a distinct cultural presence and an unwavering spirit in the heart of North Carolina. Their journey continues, a vibrant narrative of heritage, identity, and the enduring quest for justice and self-determination.
