The story of the Kumeyaay people in the San Diego area is a long and compelling one, etched in the landscape itself and passed down through generations. Extensive archaeological research, coupled with the rich oral traditions and cultural artifacts recovered from countless indigenous sites across Southern California, paints a vivid picture of a people whose roots run deep, extending back at least 12,000 years – a staggering 600 generations. This Kumeyaay Timeline (10000 BC-2001) offers a glimpse into the significant events that have shaped their history, from the earliest settlements to the challenges and triumphs of the modern era.
PRE-CONTACT: 10000 BC – 1542
This period represents an era of relative autonomy and cultural development for the ancestors of the modern Kumeyaay. For millennia, they thrived in the diverse ecosystems of Southern California, adapting their lifestyles and knowledge to the changing environment.
12000 BC – 5000 BC: Paleo-Indian (San Dieguito)
The San Dieguito Paleo-Indians are recognized as the earliest documented inhabitants of what is now San Diego County. These nomadic hunter-gatherers possessed a sophisticated understanding of their environment, relying on finely crafted stone tools for hunting and processing food. Archaeological evidence reveals a culture deeply connected to the land, skillfully utilizing available resources for survival. Over time, different groups emerged, reflecting the environmental and cultural diversification that occurred across the region. It is from one of these groups that the Southern Diegueño emerged around 3,000 BC. The Southern Diegueño are the direct ancestors of the Sycuan Band currently living in Dehesa Valley. Their society was one that valued knowledge and skills, nurturing individuals as astronomers, horticulturists, healers, scientists, and storytellers.
5000 BC – 1000 AD: Milling Stone (La Jollan)
As the climate shifted and resources evolved, the La Jollan culture emerged, characterized by a greater reliance on plant foods. The development of milling stones for grinding seeds and nuts became a defining feature of this period. This shift in subsistence strategies reflects a deeper understanding of local flora and the development of sophisticated food processing techniques. Coastal settlements became more common, indicating an increased dependence on marine resources.
1000 – 1769: Pottery Period (Yuman)
The introduction of pottery marked a significant technological advancement, allowing for more efficient storage and cooking of food. This period also saw the emergence of distinct tribal groups, with the Yuman-speaking peoples, including the ancestors of the Kumeyaay, establishing themselves across the region. Complex social structures and elaborate ceremonial practices developed, reflecting a growing sense of community and cultural identity. Trade networks expanded, connecting different villages and facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas. This era laid the foundation for the vibrant and resilient culture that would encounter the first Europeans.
1542: FIRST CONTACT
The arrival of Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo in 1542 marked a turning point in Kumeyaay history. As the first European explorer to sail into what is now San Diego Bay, Cabrillo’s encounter with the Kumeyaay initiated a period of profound change and challenge. While the initial interactions may have been limited, they set the stage for the subsequent Spanish colonization and its lasting impact on the Kumeyaay people.
1602: SAN DIEGO IS NAMED
Sixty years after Cabrillo’s landing, Sebastian Vizcaino, a wealthy merchant sailing from Acapulco, arrived in the area. He bestowed the name "San Diego" upon the bay, solidifying the Spanish presence and marking the beginning of a new chapter in the region’s history.
CALIFORNIA MISSION PERIOD (1769-1823)
This era brought dramatic changes to the Kumeyaay way of life as the Spanish sought to establish a foothold in California through the mission system.
1769: FIRST SPANISH MISSIONARY
The Portola expedition, led by Gaspar de Portolá, and the missionary efforts of Father Junípero Serra were pivotal in establishing a chain of Spanish missions and military outposts along the California coast. Driven by the pursuit of wealth and the desire to convert the indigenous population to Christianity, the Spanish sought to establish control over the land and its inhabitants. Father Serra established the first Franciscan mission in California near the ancient Kumeyaay village of Kosa’aay (Cosoy), known today as Old Town, San Diego. The location of the mission near a significant Kumeyaay settlement highlighted the Spanish strategy of integrating themselves into existing indigenous communities.
The "California Mission Period" (1769-1823) profoundly influenced the identity of some tribes, leading to the adoption of the "Mission Indian" moniker, which persists to this day. Their traditional art became known as "Mission Indian" art, further solidifying the association.
1770: Father Serra Contemplates Abandoning the Mission
One year after its founding, the mission faced significant challenges. The Kumeyaay people proved resistant to conversion efforts, with no recorded conversions during the first year. This resistance demonstrated the Kumeyaay’s strong adherence to their own spiritual beliefs and cultural practices.
1775: REBELLION ERUPTS
The Kumeyaay actively resisted the Spanish attempts to seize their land, impose governance, and force religious conversion, including demanding slave labor. This resistance culminated in a violent uprising in 1775. Father Luis Jayme was killed by rebellious warriors at Mission San Diego de Alcalá on November 4, 1775, and the mission was burned to the ground. This act of defiance underscored the Kumeyaay’s determination to protect their sovereignty and cultural integrity.
1776: FIRST SPANISH SETTLERS ARRIVE
When the first Spanish settlers arrived, the Kumeyaay population was thriving, yet they were still living in what Europeans classified as the Stone Age, without the use of metals or woven cloth. This clash of cultures highlighted the vast differences in technology and worldview between the Kumeyaay and the Spanish.
1777 The San Diego mission is re-established and was completed in 1784
The mission was rebuilt four times between 1775 and 2008. The uprising was the first of a dozen similar incidents that took place in Alta California during the Mission Period. Most rebellions, however, tended to be localized and short-lived due to the Spaniards’ superior weaponry. Kumeyaay resistance more often took the form of non-cooperation (in forced labor), return to their homelands (desertion of forced relocation), and raids on mission livestock. These subtle yet persistent forms of resistance demonstrated the Kumeyaay’s unwavering commitment to preserving their way of life.
MEXICAN PERIOD (1812 – 1848)
The Mexican War of Independence brought about a shift in power, but the challenges for the Kumeyaay continued.
1812 Mexican government makes grants of unoccupied lands in California.
1821 ALL KUMEYAAY COASTAL LANDS TAKEN BY MILITARY FORCE
By 1821 the Kumeyaay had lost control of all their prime coastal tribal lands to the Spanish; the Spanish had been defeated by the Mexicans in the Mexican War of Independence (1810–1821); and San Diego had officially come under Mexican rule. The transfer of power from Spanish to Mexican control did little to improve the Kumeyaay’s situation.
1821 Treaty of Cordoba marks the beginning of Mexican Independence
Large land grants in the San Diego area are given to Mexican supporters
1824 Mexican Constitution
The Mexican Constitution of 1824 granted equality to all citizens, including Indians. However, the reality on the ground often fell short of these ideals.
1836 – 1842 KUMEYAAY WARS
Following the successful Mexican revolution in 1821, California became part of Mexico. The Mexican government sought to eliminate the Spanish system centered on the Missions and Pueblos. Lands were carved up for distribution as Ranchos and Indians were either evicted or forced to work as laborers. This resulted in a massive uprising of Kumeyaay throughout their territory. Armed with modern weaponry and horses, Kumeyaay warriors launched recurring raids on the Mexican Ranchos. These Kumeyaay attacks on the now Mexican San Diego territory were meant to put down the abusive Mexican domination in the greater San Diego area and reclaim ancient Kumeyaay coastal lands and water rights. By 1842, the Ranchos had been abandoned and the warriors were attacking the last stronghold, the City of San Diego. The City was spared destruction by the entry of another faction, the United States of America.
1826 Skirmish between Indians and Mexican troops in San Diego kills 28 Kumeyaay.
1827 Smallpox epidemic sweeps through California Indian population.
1832 Malaria epidemic hits California.
1835 The Mexican military abandons the Presidio at San Diego
1846 – 1848 THE MEXICAN AMERICAN WAR
The Mexican-American War further complicated the Kumeyaay’s situation. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the war in 1848, established the current US-Mexico border, effectively bisecting the Kumeyaay ancestral homelands. This division created a lasting challenge for the Kumeyaay people, separating families and disrupting cultural practices. The "border situation" continues to affect the Kumeyaay to this day.
1847 U.S. – Mexico hostilities end with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
United States pledges in the treaty to respect Indian land rights.
THE CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH (1848 – 1855)
The discovery of gold in California triggered a massive influx of settlers, ushering in a period of unprecedented hardship for the indigenous population.
The California gold rush sealed the fate of the California Indians for the next 150-plus years. In 1848, Indians in California out numbered whites by ten to one. The gold rush brought 300,000 gold prospectors and immigrants pouring into California during this seven-year period, effectively tripling California’s population in seven years. During the ten year period from 1845 to 1855, approximately 100,000 indigenous people perished, reversing the balance of whites to Indians. This changed the course California’s history by bringing the full weight of the invaders’ superior weaponry, their foreign diseases, and their greed for gold and land bearing down on the aboriginal population of California. The ensuing U.S. government and California state and local militia control over the Kumeyaay were blatantly genocidal to the California Indian peoples.
Local, State and Federal governments supported the genocide of California Indians. City governments paid bounties on heads or scalps of Indians. Volunteer militias received reimbursement from the State treasury for their expenses in Indian extermination. Furthermore, the Federal government would often reimburse the State for much of the claims against the treasury by militias.
In 1845 the California Indian population is estimated to have been 150,000. By 1855, the native population had dropped to 50,000. By 1900, only about 16,500 survived. Of the 16,500 or so surviving California Indians in 1900, only around 1,000 Kumeyaay Indians are believed to have survived at the turn of the 20th century in San Diego County, and all but their least desirable tribal lands had been taken by settlers, state and federal officials.
1850 California becomes a state.
1851 Indian revolt against Warner Ranch
Defeated, after burning the ranch house and stage station; Indians resist efforts of sheriff to collect taxes.
1852 “Garra Revolt” ends with the arrest of Antonio Garra
Garra is executed after being found guilty of treason, murder, and theft in the aftermath of organizing Warner’s Ranch area Indians.
US TREATY PERIOD (1852 – Present)
This era marked a new phase of interaction between the Kumeyaay and the United States government, characterized by treaties, reservations, and ongoing struggles for self-determination.
1852 Treaty of Santa Ysabel
The unratified Treaty of “Santa Ysabel was meant to establish a Kumeyaay Diegueño Indian Reservation over 60 miles inland in the most remote, hostile, high-mountain deserts of San Diego County, Riverside County and Imperial County. Unfortunately, the Treaty of Santa Ysabel was illegally and unethically voted down and placed under seal by the Senate of the United States. State sponsored militias then sought to enslave or exterminate all Indians in California. The population of Indians in California dropped by 90% from 1850 to 1860. Because of the nearby Mexican border and the lack of large gold strikes to lure more Americans, the Kumeyaay on the Mexican side of the border fared somewhat better than the northern tribes on the US side.
1859 Indian property awarded to settlers in Rancho Land Grants.
1860 Common School act excludes Indians from California public schools.
1862 San Diego City Council orders the sheriff to remove “the Indian rancheria” one-half mile from any town residence.
1869 The San Francisco Alta newspaper reports that 22,000 California Indians have died in less than 20 years from disease and deprivation.
1870 Gold discovered in Julian, CA – Reservation in area cancelled.
1875 President Grant gives executive order, setting aside Indian land allowing the establishment of reservations for the Santa Ysabel, Pala, Sycuan, La Jolla, Rincon, Viejas, and Capitan Grande bands.
1877 Severe San Diego drought results in attacks on Indians holding water resources.
1885 California Southern Railroad gives San Diego its first rail connection with the East and population grows to 40,000 within two years.
1891 La Jolla and Cuyapaipe Reservations established.
1893 Campo Indian Reservation established, Pauma and Yuima Reservation at the foothills of Mount Palomar, and Rincon Reservation officially established.
1900 Total Indian population in California drops to about 16,500 (11,800 of this number are considered “landless”).
1901-1903 Additional funds set aside to purchase more acreage for reservations.
1912 A small reservation is created for San Diego’s Jamul Band of Mission Indians.
1924 Citizenship Act Passed
Under the Citizenship Act of 1924, Indians get US citizenship. Women get right to vote (including Indian women). However, Indians could not vote for local officials.
1932 Kumeyaay forced off ancestral land on the San Diego River, making way for the El Capitan Dam and its reservoir. The federal government helps to relocate the Barona Band to the present-day Barona Reservation.
1934 Reservation established for the Viejas Band from their displacement by the reservoir.
1952 Indians get full right to vote.
They are now able to vote for local politicians.
1953 Public Law 280 authorized states unilaterally to assume jurisdiction over criminal and civil matters on reservations.
1958 Interstate Highway 8 opens in San Diego County, following ancient Indian trails through Mission Valley.
1969 The La Jolla Band sues the cities of Escondido and Vista to recover water diverted from Reservation lands in 1895 and 1924.
1969 Seizure of Alcatraz Island
Indians took over Alcatraz to bring public attention to Indian issues. Most California Indians are living in abject poverty.
1976 The Health Clinic and Community Center is opened on the Sycuan Reservation, in cooperation with six other reservations.
1978 American Indian Religious Freedom Act is passed.
For the first time in 100 years, american indians can excercise the American constitutional guarantee of religious freedom.
1982 Anthony Pico is elected tribal chairman of the San Diego the Viejas Band and subsequently becomes a national voice in Native American affairs, particularly on the matter of Indian gaming.
1983 Sycuan Indian Reservation opens a gaming center offering bingo games.
In 1989, 1992 and 2000 the facility is expanded and new types of gaming offered.
1988 Congress enacts the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act to bring tribal gaming under a regulatory structure and to give state governments added control over the types of casino-style games allowed on reservations.
1990 Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act was passed by the 101st Congress.
1991 Viejas Reservation starts a gaming operation.
1992 Native Cultures Institute begins organizing cross-border travel to reunite members of tribes split by international boundaries, including the Kumeyaay of San Diego and Baja, Mexico.
1994 The Native American Environmental Protection Coalition (NAEPC) is founded in Southern California to share common concerns and bring a team effort to the protection, preservation, and restoration of the environment.
1996 A special California State Senate committee report concludes that Indians in California receive less consideration in state policy making than Indians in other states.
1997 The Kumeyaay Cultural Repatriation Committee is formed, with representatives from 12 Kumeyaay bands in the San Diego area, to work with museums and universities in the implementation of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act.
1998 A Kumeyaay Border Task Force works with federal immigration officials to secure the rights of Baja, Mexico, Indians to freely visit and interact with Kumeyaay in the U.S.
1984 Barona Band builds a bingo hall and initiates gaming on their reservation.
1999 Viejas tribal chairman Anthony Pico delivers the first “state of the tribe” public address, announcing that “tribes are governments and that (the Viejas Band of Kumeyaay Indians) are not an extinct people or a stagnant culture.”
1999 The Sycuan Tribe is named as a contender in the multi-million dollar bidding war for naming rights to the planned San Diego Padre downtown ballpark.
1999 The Barona Tribe opens the first Museum on a San Diego County Indian Reservation.
2000 California voters end years of debate and legal battles over casino-style Indian gaming by enacting Proposition 1A, a constitutional amendment removing the legal impediment resulting in the overturn of Proposition 5 (a gaming initative enacted in 1998 but overturned by the California Supreme Court)
2001 Casinos open for Campo, Pala, Pauma, Rincon and San Pasqual Tribes.
This Kumeyaay Timeline (10000 BC-2001) highlights the long and complex history of the Kumeyaay people. From their ancient origins to their modern-day struggles and triumphs, the Kumeyaay have demonstrated remarkable resilience and adaptability. The story of the Kumeyaay Timeline (10000 BC-2001) is a testament to their enduring spirit and their unwavering commitment to preserving their culture and sovereignty. This Kumeyaay Timeline (10000 BC-2001) is a reminder of the importance of understanding and respecting the history and contributions of indigenous peoples.