The passage of a decade might seem insignificant when measured against the vast tapestry of a history stretching back 9,000 years. Yet, the discovery of Kennewick Man on July 28, 1996, has served as a catalyst, dramatically reshaping established beliefs concerning the peopling of the Americas. This ancient skeleton, unearthed along the banks of the Columbia River near Kennewick, Washington, continues to pose profound questions about our origins, potentially holding more mysteries than answers within its fragile structure.
The skeletal remains of Kennewick Man represent one of the most complete and significant discoveries of an ancient individual ever made on the North American continent. This find, however, was not without its complexities. The discovery ignited a fierce legal battle that spanned nine years, pitting scientists against the federal government and several Native American tribes who asserted ancestral claims to the remains. This protracted dispute elevated Kennewick Man to international prominence. His story has been chronicled in numerous books and explored in documentary films, becoming a subject of study in classrooms across the globe. Dozens of websites track his saga, and his image has even graced the cover of prominent magazines, signifying the widespread fascination with this ancient figure.
Ultimately, the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals rendered a decision in favor of the scientific community, paving the way for the first comprehensive studies of the bones in the summer following the ruling.
For approximately a year, some of the nation’s foremost scientists dedicated their expertise to the study of Kennewick Man. While they have released some preliminary findings, they emphasize that future generations of researchers, equipped with increasingly advanced technologies, will undoubtedly glean further insights from these ancient bones. The skeleton holds the potential to unlock deeper understanding of the human story in the Americas.
The Pioneer
Dr. C. Loring Brace, a renowned anthropologist at the University of Michigan, was among the first to recognize the significance of the discovery. Upon seeing a photograph of Kennewick Man’s skull accompanying a New York Times article in 1996, he immediately formed a hypothesis about the individual’s origins. "One look at that thing, and I knew it was going to relate to the Ainu of Japan," he declared. Brace, however, had to endure nearly a decade-long wait before he could personally examine the remains.
His first encounter with the bones occurred the summer following the court ruling. Brace’s confidence in pinpointing Kennewick Man’s ancestral connections stemmed from his extensive work measuring approximately 10,000 skeletons over nearly 30 years. He meticulously records these measurements in a comprehensive computer database, allowing him to track and analyze incremental changes in human populations across vast stretches of time. The discovery of Kennewick Man, along with a handful of other ancient skeletons, has spurred a re-evaluation of prevailing scientific perspectives on North American history, suggesting that the traditional Bering Land Bridge theory might be an oversimplified explanation.
The emerging picture suggests that multiple waves of migration likely occurred into North America, potentially beginning thousands of years before the hypothesized crossing of the Bering Land Bridge.
According to Thomas Stafford Jr., a geochemist based in Lafayette, Colorado, "The Kennewick Man skeleton is a piece of all our histories." He raises the crucial question of defining "pioneer," prompting us to consider whether the term applies solely to those who arrived in covered wagons, or also to the Native Americans who migrated 8,000 years ago, or even to the populations that preceded them. Brace supports the theory that ancient people migrated from Asia to North America by various means, including coastal travel by boat or on foot, and potentially even over ice sheets.
The conventional narrative holds that approximately 12,000 years ago, the Clovis people, skilled prehistoric hunters, pursued large game animals across the Bering Land Bridge connecting Siberia and Alaska. It is widely believed that modern Native Americans are descended from these Clovis people. Brace’s research suggests that Kennewick Man might be related to the ancient Jomon people, who were also ancestors of the Ainu people of Japan. This proposed connection represents a significant departure from the long-held assumptions of ancient history. Brace asserts that his initial hunch was confirmed when he was finally able to take measurements of Kennewick Man’s skull.
"I got my calipers on him, and it says what I expected it to," he stated. "Tying that across to Central Japan, that’s not something that most people in the business expected." It is noted that Kennewick Man might have initially been mistaken for someone of European descent because the Jomon people shared certain similar characteristics. The Ainu people, however, exhibit distinct features compared to other Japanese populations, often displaying lighter skin, wavy hair, and noticeable body hair.
"Their eyes don’t look Asian at all," Brace observed. While he acknowledges that not everyone concurs with his theory, he points out that they lack access to the extensive data he has compiled. He also emphasizes the inherent challenges in finding skeletons dating back 9,000 years, given the significantly smaller population sizes at that time and the absence of established burial grounds or cemeteries.
Furthermore, the natural processes of bone deterioration over time, compounded by exposure to the elements, make the discovery of a complete skeleton from such a distant era an exceedingly rare event. Stafford underscores the extraordinary importance of Kennewick Man in reshaping our understanding of the past. "There are so few of these skeletons that every single one of them is priceless," he stated. "To lose one out of six is just inconceivable."
The Ancestor
This scientific perspective clashes sharply with the views of the Mid-Columbia tribes, who maintain their unwavering hope of reburying the skeleton, which they refer to as the Ancient One. Recently, tribal leaders conducted prayers over Kennewick Man’s bones at the Burke Museum in Seattle. Also, Audie Huber witnessed the reburial of 143 Native American remains near Lyons Ferry State Park north of Washtucna.
These remains, exhumed in the 1960s to make way for the Ice Harbor Dam, had been stored in the anthropology departments of the University of Idaho in Moscow and Washington State University in Pullman. Huber, working for the Umatilla Indian Reservation’s department of natural resources, played a pivotal role in orchestrating the return of the bones to the tribes, in accordance with the federal Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA).
"The sense of relief was really palatable," Huber described. "I lack the words to describe it." Huber, a Native American from the Northwest coastal Quinault tribe, has closely monitored the Kennewick Man court case since its inception in 1996. He characterizes the legal battle as "exhausting." "But we are here to protect the resources, and we will continue to do so," he asserted.
He argues that keeping remains in boxes or on display in museums marginalizes living tribal members. While the tribes have faced criticism from international circles, Huber believes their beliefs are not difficult to comprehend. "Many cultures believe that once remains are in the ground, they should stay there," he explained.
Huber clarifies that the tribes are fighting for the right to be consulted on any studies of the bones, invoking the Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979, which safeguards archaeological sites and artifacts. Conversely, scientists argue that the tribes lack a legitimate claim to the bones, citing the court’s decision that they are not demonstrably related to the ancient skeleton.
A bill introduced by Sen. John McCain, R-Ariz., has the potential to broaden the scope of NAGPRA and grant tribes greater control. "This amendment would bring all historical human remains under NAGPRA," Huber stated. Rob Roy Smith, the Seattle lawyer who represented the tribes in the Kennewick Man case, believes that even if the bill were to pass, it would likely not alter the outcome of the Kennewick Man case.
The bill has encountered limited progress, as the Iraq war and other pressing concerns have taken precedence. Huber notes that the tribes dedicated substantial time and resources to the Kennewick Man case, recognizing its potential to establish a precedent for the federal government in future cases.
Smith expresses his hope that future discoveries of remains on federal land will be met with open discussions between tribes and scientists, rather than protracted court battles. "There hasn’t been that next discovery to test what will happen under that statute," Smith observed. "But it’s just a matter of time. Hopefully, we’ve learned our lessons." Similar to the Mid-Columbia tribes, the Asatru Folk Assembly also claimed Kennewick Man as an ancestor in late 1996.
Stephen McNallen, the religious leader of the Asatru, stated that he engaged in a three-year legal battle to have the skeleton studied, based on the possibility of a link to ancient Europeans. He expressed interest in the potential revelations of DNA studies on Kennewick Man. The Asatru, founded in 1972, adhere to a pre-Christian European theology, centered on Viking gods such as Odin and Thor.
The group posits that early Europeans migrated to North America thousands of years before Columbus. "No matter who Kennewick Man turns out to be, it will be of great interest to everyone," McNallen asserted. The Asatru abandoned their legal fight in 2000, citing the excessive time and financial burden of the lengthy legal battle.
McNallen also acknowledged that he might have taken a more reserved approach to the Kennewick Man issue had he foreseen the criticism the Asatru would face after performing religious ceremonies in the Tri-Cities. He noted that minority religions are often subject to misunderstanding. "I think it’s better to be more reserved than we were at that time," he stated. "We don’t invite outsiders, and we don’t allow ourselves to be photographed (during religious ceremonies)."
McNallen affirmed that the Asatru would readily accept scientific evidence if Kennewick Man were proven to be related to another ethnic group, such as Southeast Asians. "All we’ve wanted all along is just the facts," he declared.
The ‘Window into the Past’
The scientists who fought for nine years to study Kennewick Man acknowledged the frustration of the delay but also recognized that it allowed scientific methods and technology to advance. They believe the bones are revealing stories of the past and raising even more questions.
"I’m kind of glad that some of the people in the government were so cautious," said Stafford, the Colorado geochemist. "If we had studied it for a month and then reburied it, the things I’m telling you now wouldn’t exist."
The experts who recently studied Kennewick Man are in the process of finalizing their reports and plan to co-author a book or journal. They hope their collaborative effort will serve as a model for studying future discoveries.
"To my knowledge, this is the first time (in North America) a study has been done with this many people," Stafford said. Over the past decade, Stafford has developed a more precise radiocarbon dating test, accurate within 20 years, a significant improvement over previous technologies that had a 500-year margin of error. He aims to apply his improved test to Kennewick Man’s bones. He noted that several labs tested pieces of the bones for the government to determine the skeleton’s age, but the results varied by more than 2,600 years.
He is utilizing leftover bone fragments and powders from those tests to identify which part of the bone might yield the most accurate radiocarbon date. The challenge lies in identifying the optimal protein for the test, as bone protein degrades over time due to the effects of bacteria, water, and other elements. Kennewick Man’s bones contain only 1 percent to 5 percent of their original protein.
Over thousands of years, the protein becomes increasingly difficult to locate and less consistent, resembling a poorly mixed cake batter, he explained. Stafford also intends to employ chemistry to determine Kennewick Man’s diet and potential travel patterns, seeking to ascertain whether he primarily consumed vegetables, meat, or fish.
"I am just amazed at all the new things I see in this skeleton," he said.
"It gives me other ideas for other tests." He hopes to complete his tests by September.
The scientists also aspire to extract DNA from Kennewick Man’s bones or teeth, although Stafford is uncertain whether the current technology is sufficiently advanced. "We ought to let DNA technology catch up with our ideas," he said. "We should do these experiments on bison bone and not on Kennewick."
Successful DNA testing could allow scientists to compare Kennewick Man’s genes with those of other populations worldwide, or reveal information about his physical traits. Hugh Berryman, a research professor at Middle Tennessee State University, believes that Kennewick Man has only begun to reveal his story.
Berryman, an anthropologist specializing in forensics, primarily studies the recently deceased. He is an expert in interpreting skeletal injuries and determining the causes and mechanisms of bone fractures. After studying the ancient skeleton, he concluded that Kennewick Man was likely well-loved and supported.
Berryman pointed out that Kennewick Man had recovered from a spear wound to his hip, suggesting that he had close friends or family who aided in his survival. "There were others that helped him survive," he said.
"He wasn’t in good shape then."
Berryman acknowledged that the circumstances surrounding Kennewick Man’s injury – whether it occurred during hunting, in battle, or in a family dispute – remain unclear.
"Nine thousand years doesn’t make him any less a person," he said.
"He had the same thoughts and feelings as we do. But I can safely say it wasn’t a dispute over a parking space."
Scientists plan to scan the spear point embedded in the hip bone to determine the stone’s origin, which may provide clues about Kennewick Man’s travels or the peoples he encountered. Berryman stated that he and his colleagues have gained considerable insights into Kennewick Man’s life, but future studies will undoubtedly uncover more answers and generate new questions.
"He is a window into the past," Berryman concluded. "When you look at a skeleton like this, you are kind of communicating with him through technology. Fifty years from now, there may be some great technology and questions we can ask him."