The portrayal of Native American cultures in popular media, particularly in film, often raises questions about authenticity and historical accuracy. One such question arises from the 1992 film The Last of the Mohicans, specifically concerning the earring worn by Russel Means in his role as Chingachgook, a prominent Mohican character. Is this earring an authentic Mohican design? To answer this, we must delve into the history of the Mohican people, their traditions, and the historical context in which the film is set.
The Last of the Mohicans, a film adaptation of James Fenimore Cooper’s novel, is a historical romance set in 1757 during the French and Indian War (part of the larger Seven Years’ War). This conflict pitted Great Britain against France for control of North American territories. While Cooper’s novel draws inspiration from historical events, it is ultimately a work of fiction, and the film adaptation further embellishes and romanticizes the story. This creative license extends to the portrayal of Mohican culture and material culture.
Cooper’s novel, the second in his Leatherstocking Tales series, is set in what was known as "Leatherstocking Country," the region around Albany, New York, including Cooperstown, where the author grew up. The book, while inspired by historical realities, isn’t a strictly accurate historical document. Cooper made a number of errors, including confusing the Mohican and Mohegan tribes. He mistakenly assigned Mohegan names to his Mohican characters and situated their homeland in Mohegan territory. The Mohegan sachem Ungus, for instance, died in 1693 and was succeeded by his son and grandson, reflecting the Mohegan’s patriarchal clan system. This confusion persists today, with some still referring to the Mohegans of Connecticut as "Mohicans" due to Cooper’s influence. The film adaptation has further perpetuated misconceptions.
This is important context when evaluating the earring’s authenticity. The film contributes to the misconception that the Mohicans are an extinct people. In reality, over 1,500 Mohicans live in Wisconsin today, known as the Stockbridge-Munsee Band of Mohicans. Smaller groups also reside in New York, Connecticut, and Ohio.
To understand the authenticity of the earring design, a brief overview of Mohican history and cultural practices is necessary. According to Mohican oral history, documented in 1734, their ancestors migrated from the west, crossing "the great waters" – likely referring to the Bering Strait. They named themselves "Muhheconnuk," meaning "great waters or sea, which are constantly in motion." This name reflects their connection to the tides and waterways of their ancestral lands.
The oral history describes a more civilized past, followed by a period of famine that led to dispersal and a loss of traditional ways. Upon reaching the Hudson River, they recognized its flowing and ebbing waters as similar to their original homeland, leading them to settle in the valleys of the eastern rivers. The Mohicans, Pequots, and Mohegans are believed to descend from the Delaware (Lenni Lenape), who are considered the "grandfathers" of many Algonquian peoples. The Mohican clans were traditionally matriarchal, organized around the turtle, bear, and wolf.
The Mohegans (meaning "wolf") eventually separated, with some migrating west and becoming known as the Pequots. The Mohicans, Mohegans, and Pequots, while distinct nations, share a common ancestry. Archaeological evidence suggests that people have inhabited the Hudson River Valley for over 12,000 years, with Clovis points dating back to that era.
Over time, the Mohicans intermarried with other tribes, developing a unique dialect influenced by languages like Shawnee. They sought permission from the Delaware to allow the Shawnee to settle in the Ohio River region, which was granted.
The Mohican homeland once encompassed the woodlands of New England, stretching from the Atlantic coast to the Hudson and Housatonic rivers, and from Manhattan Island to Lake Champlain. Today, the Stockbridge-Munsee Mohicans reside in Wisconsin, a significant distance from their original lands. This relocation occurred through a series of six migrations driven by European colonization.
The Mohicans, along with Wappinger and other Algonquian groups, formed a community in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, as they were pushed westward. They were later joined by Brothertown Indians from Pennsylvania and Delaware Munsee Indians. The "Many Trails" symbol, designed by Elder Steve Comer and rendered in silver by Elder Edwin Martin, represents the tribe’s strength, hope, and endurance through these migrations.
The Stockbridge-Munsee Band of Mohican Indians chose the "Many Trails" symbol to represent the many moves they endured since leaving the State of New York in the 1700’s.
Originally from the shores of the Mahicanituck (now renamed the Hudson River) this band of Mohican people moved several times, settling in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, parts of New York, stopping in Ohio and Indiana and settling three times before their final move to the Stockbridge-Munsee Indian reservation in Shawano County, Wisconsin.
The tribe has maintained residency in this area for over 100 years now, and it is their longest stay since leaving New York.
Considering the historical and cultural context, we can now address the question of whether the earring worn by Chingachgook in The Last of the Mohicans is an authentic Mohican design. Eastern Woodland Indians, including the Mohicans, traditionally used materials like corn husks, quillwork, feathers, beads, and paint to decorate clothing, baskets, and other ornaments. Common designs included plants, flowers, and semicircles representing walking trails in the forest, using colors like blood-red, white, blueberry, and coal black.
In the early 1600s, copper from the Great Lakes was a highly valued trade item used for adornment. Wampum beads, made from white and purple shells, were obtained from the Delaware and Narragansett tribes and used for trade and artistic expression. The Mohicans were known for their beadwork and basketry. Wampum beads were used as currency and for creating intricate patterns on belts that told stories or represented families. Wampum necklaces were also popular, particularly among women, who wore multiple strands for adornment, sometimes weighing several pounds for special occasions. "Pound" beads in various colors were common, as were "barleycorn" beads and wampum.
In the 17th and early 18th centuries, copper was widely used for body adornment. Common items included nose rings, earbobs (earrings), and bracelets. Later, silver became more prevalent. Men also wore copper chest plates, which were highly prized and became more valuable with age.
Early earrings worn by the Mohicans consisted of cylindrical beads, simple triangles, or slightly concave, solid discs. The "wheel" earring design, like the one worn by Russel Means in the movie, was a later innovation, not appearing until the late 1700s to early 1800s.
European traders introduced silver jewelry to Native American communities, and silversmiths in Europe began producing goods specifically for this trade. This became known as "trade silver." Earrings and nosebobs could be obtained for a beaver skin or two deer hides. By the mid-18th century, silver accounted for a significant portion of the fur trade.
The "wheel" design is often associated with the Buddhist "Wheel of Life," with spokes representing pure conduct, justice, wisdom, modesty, and thoughtfulness. This symbol, however, has no direct connection to Mohican culture or artistry. The elaborate six-spoked version is common in Dharmic religions.
Therefore, based on historical evidence and Mohican cultural practices, the "wheel" earring worn by Russel Means in The Last of the Mohicans is not an authentic Mohican design from the 1750s. While the film accurately portrays the use of earrings in general, the specific style is an anachronism, reflecting a later period and a different cultural influence.
Ultimately, the earring in question, while visually striking, is a product of Hollywood’s creative license and does not accurately reflect Mohican material culture during the historical period depicted in the film. The film The Last of the Mohicans is a fictionalized account of historical events, and artistic liberties were taken with costumes and set design. The question, "Is this earring an authentic Mohican design?" is answered with a definitive "no." The "wheel" earring represents a later period.