The history of Indian Territory Boarding Schools is a complex and often painful chapter in the relationship between the United States government and Native American tribes. These institutions, the first of which emerged in 1872, were initially conceived with the stated goal of educating Native American children and assimilating them into mainstream American society. While some continue to operate in modified forms even today, the legacy of these schools is deeply intertwined with cultural loss, forced assimilation, and the disruption of Indigenous family structures. Understanding the context and operation of these schools is crucial to comprehending the historical injustices faced by Native American communities.
The establishment of Indian Territory Boarding Schools was fueled by a broader federal policy aimed at dismantling tribal sovereignty and integrating Native Americans into the dominant culture. This policy, often articulated as "Kill the Indian, save the man," reflected a belief that Native American cultures were inferior and that assimilation was the only path to survival in a rapidly changing world. The Indian Territory, encompassing much of present-day Oklahoma, became a focal point for these assimilation efforts, as it was designated as a relocation area for numerous tribes removed from their ancestral lands.
These boarding schools were often operated through a partnership between the federal government and various religious organizations, including Methodist, Presbyterian, Quaker, Mennonite, and Catholic groups. The government provided funding and established the overall framework, while the religious denominations managed the day-to-day operations, curriculum, and often, the spiritual indoctrination of the students. This partnership created a system where the cultural and religious values of the dominant society were actively imposed upon Native American children.
The experience within these Indian Territory Boarding Schools was often harsh and traumatic. Children were typically forcibly removed from their families and communities, severing vital connections to their culture, language, and traditions. Upon arrival at the schools, they were often stripped of their Native clothing, hairstyles, and names, and forbidden from speaking their native languages. Punishments for violating these rules were often severe, ranging from physical abuse to the withholding of food and privileges.
The curriculum at these schools was designed to instill Euro-American values and skills. Academic subjects such as reading, writing, and arithmetic were taught, often with a focus on American history and culture. In addition, students were often trained in vocational skills, such as farming, carpentry, and domestic work, with the intention of preparing them for menial labor in the American economy. The emphasis on manual labor also served to reduce the operating costs of the schools, as students were often required to perform chores and maintain the facilities.
The impact of Indian Territory Boarding Schools on Native American communities was devastating. The forced removal of children disrupted family structures and undermined traditional parenting practices. The suppression of Native languages and cultures led to a loss of cultural identity and a weakening of tribal traditions. Many students suffered from emotional and psychological trauma as a result of the harsh conditions and the separation from their families. The legacy of these schools continues to affect Native American communities today, contributing to issues such as intergenerational trauma, cultural loss, and economic disparities.
Despite the negative impacts, it is important to acknowledge that some students found ways to resist and maintain their cultural identity within the boarding school system. Some students secretly spoke their native languages, shared stories and traditions, and maintained connections to their families and communities. These acts of resistance demonstrate the resilience and determination of Native American people to preserve their cultural heritage in the face of adversity.
The following is a list of some of the Indian Territory Boarding Schools, along with their location, operating dates, and affiliated religious organizations (where applicable):
- Absentee Shawnee Boarding School: Near Shawnee, Indian Territory. Opened in 1893.
- Arapaho Manual Labor and Boarding School: Darlington, Indian Territory. Opened in 1872, later moved and renamed Concho Indian Boarding School in 1909. Supported by federal funds, but run by Hicksite (Liberal) Friends and Orthodox Quakers.
- Armstrong Academy: Near Chahta Tamaha, Indian Territory.
- Asbury Manual Labor School: Near Eufaula, Creek Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1850-1888 by the United Methodist Missions.
- Bloomfield Female Academy: Originally near Achille, Chickasaw Nation, Indian Territory. Opened in 1848, relocated to Ardmore, Oklahoma, around 1917, and renamed Carter Seminary in 1934.
- Burney Institute (later Chickasaw Orphan Home and Manual Labor School): Near Lebanon, Chickasaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1854-1906 by the Cumberland Presbyterian Church.
- Cameron Institute: Cameron, Choctaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1893 to the early 20th century by the Presbyterian Church.
- Cantonment Indian Boarding School: Canton, Indian Territory. Run by the General Conference Mennonites from September 1882 to July 1, 1927.
- Cherokee Female Seminary: Tahlequah, Cherokee Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1851 to 1910.
- Cherokee Male Seminary: Tahlequah, Cherokee Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1851-1910.
- Cherokee Orphan Asylum: Tahlequah, Cherokee Nation, Indian Territory. Opened in 1871.
- Cheyenne-Arapaho Boarding School: Darlington, Indian Territory. Opened in 1871, renamed Arapaho Manual Labor and Boarding School in 1879.
- Cheyenne Manual Labor and Boarding School: Caddo Springs, Indian Territory. Opened in 1879, later moved and renamed Concho Indian Boarding School in 1909. Supported by federal funds, but run by Hicksite (Liberal) Friends and Orthodox Quakers.
- Chickasaw National Academy: Near Stonewall, Chickasaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from about 1865 to 1880.
- Chickasaw Orphan Home and Manual Labor School (formerly Burney Academy): Near Lebanon, Chickasaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1887-1906.
- Chuala Female Seminary (Pine Ridge Mission School): Near Doaksville, Choctaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1838-1861 by the Presbyterian Church.
- Colbert Institute: Perryville, Choctaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1852-1857 by the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
- Collins Institute: Near Stonewall, Chickasaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from about 1885 to 1905.
- Creek Orphan Asylum: Okmulgee, Creek Nation, Indian Territory. Opened in 1895.
- Darlington Mission School: Darlington, Indian Territory. Run by the General Conference Mennonites from 1881 to 1902.
- El Meta Bond College: Minco, Chickasaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1890-1919.
- Emahaka Mission: Wewoka, Seminole Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1894-1911.
- Euchee Boarding School: Sapulpa, Creek Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1894-1947.
- Fort Coffee Academy: Fort Coffee, Choctaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1840-1863 by the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
- Fort Sill Indian School (Josiah Missionary School): Near Fort Sill, Indian Territory. Opened in 1871 by the Quakers, remained open until 1980.
- Hillside Mission School: Near Skiatook, Cherokee Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1884-1908 by the Quakers.
- Iowa Mission School: Near Fallis, Iowa Reservation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1890-1893 by the Quakers.
- Jones Academy: Hartshorne, Choctaw Nation, Indian Territory/Oklahoma. Opened in 1891.
- Koweta Mission School: Coweta, Creek Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1843-1861.
- Levering Manual Labor School (later Wetumka Boarding School): Wetumka, Creek Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1882-1910, initially by the Southern Baptist Convention, later by the Muscogee (Creek) Nation.
- Mekasukey Academy: Near Seminole, Seminole Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1891-1930.
- New Hope Academy: Fort Coffee, Choctaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1844-1896 by the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
- Nuyaka School and Orphanage (Nuyaka Mission): Okmulgee, Creek Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1884-1933 by the Presbyterian Church.
- Oak Hill Industrial Academy (later Elliott Academy): Near Valliant, Choctaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1878-1912 by the Presbyterian Mission Board.
- Oak Ridge Manual Labor School: Near Holdenville, Indian Territory in the Seminole Nation. Operated from 1848-1860s by the Presbyterian Mission Board.
- Osage Boarding School: Pawhuska, Osage Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1874-1922.
- Park Hill Mission School: Park Hill Indian Territory/Oklahoma. Opened in 1837.
- Pawnee Boarding School: Pawnee, Indian Territory. Operated from November 11, 1878 – May 22, 1958.
- Quapaw Industrial Boarding School: Quapaw Agency Indian Territory. Operated from September 2, 1872 – 1900.
- Rainy Mountain Boarding School: Near Gotebo, Kiowa-Comanche-Apache Reservation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1893-1920.
- Red Moon School: Near Hammon, Indian Territory. Operated from 1897-1922.
- Sac and Fox Boarding School: Near Stroud, Indian Territory. Operated from 1872-1919 by the Quakers.
- Sacred Heart College: Near Asher, Potowatamie Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1884-1902.
- Sacred Heart Institute: Near Asher, Potowatamie Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1880-1929.
- St. John’s Boarding School: Gray Horse, Osage Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1888-1913 by the Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions.
- St. Mary’s Academy: Near Asher, Potowatamie Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1880-1946.
- St. Louis Industrial School: Pawhuska, Osage Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1887-1949 by the Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions.
- St. Mary’s Boarding School: Quapaw Agency Indian Territory/Oklahoma. Operated from 1893-1927.
- St. Patrick’s Mission and Boarding School (later Anadarko Boarding School): Anadarko, Indian Territory. Operated from 1892-1909 by the Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions.
- Sasakwa Female Academy: Sasakwa, Seminole Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1880-1892 by the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
- Seger Indian Training School: Colony, Indian Territory.
- Seneca, Shawnee, and Wyandotte Industrial Boarding School: Wyandotte, Indian Territory.
- Sequoyah High School: Tahlequah, Cherokee Nation, Indian Territory.
- Shawnee Boarding School: Near Shawnee, Indian Territory. Operated from 1876-1918.
- Spencer Academy (National School of the Choctaw Nation): Near Doaksville, Choctaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1842-1900.
- Sulphur Springs Indian School: Pontotoc County, Chickasaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1896-1898.
- Tullahassee Mission School: Tullahassee, Creek Nation, Indian Territory. Opened in 1850, burned in 1880.
- Tullahassee Manual Labor School: Tullahassee, Creek Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1883-1914 for Creek Freedmen.
- Tushka Lusa Institute (Tuska Lusa or Tushkaloosa Academy): Near Talihina, Choctaw Nation, Indian Territory. Opened in 1892 for Choctaw Freedmen.
- Tuskahoma Female Academy: Lyceum, Choctaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1892-1925.
- Wapanucka Academy (Allen Academy): Near Bromide, Chickasaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1851-1911 by the Presbyterian Church.
- Wealaka Mission School: Wealaka, Indian Territory. Operated from 1882-1907.
- Wewoka Mission School (Ramsey Mission School): Near Wewoka, Seminole Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1868-1880 by the Presbyterian Mission Board.
- Wetumka Boarding School (formerly Levering Manual Labor School): Wetumka, Creek Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1891-1910 by the Muscogee (Creek) Nation.
- Yellow Springs School: Pontotoc County, Chickasaw Nation, Indian Territory. Operated from 1896-1905.
In recent years, there has been a growing movement to acknowledge and address the historical injustices perpetrated by Indian Territory Boarding Schools. This includes efforts to document the experiences of survivors, to provide support for healing and reconciliation, and to promote a more accurate and nuanced understanding of Native American history and culture. The ongoing work to uncover the truth about these schools and their impact is essential for fostering healing and building a more just and equitable future for Native American communities.
