The "Fighting Sioux" nickname and associated imagery have been a source of considerable debate at the University of North Dakota (UND) since the early 1970s. This article aims to provide a comprehensive historical and contextual perspective on the History of the Fighting Sioux Mascot Controversy, drawing on insights from individuals closely involved with UND’s leadership throughout this period.
Early Adoption of Native American Imagery
From its inception, UND, like many institutions and communities in the Dakotas, embraced Native American imagery. A review of early editions of the university yearbook, the "Dacotah," reveals the widespread use of such symbols. Native Americans, adorned in traditional regalia, actively participated in university pageants and events, often held along the banks of the English Coulee. This practice reflected a broader trend among white settlers who incorporated Indian names into the nomenclature of cities, waterways, geographical landmarks, and businesses – a practice exemplified by the very name "Dakota" itself.
The prevalence of symbols and graphic images extended beyond the university. An Indian head emblem has been a fixture on state highway markers since the early 20th century. Similarly, the State Highway Patrol proudly displays another Indian head symbol on its squad cars.
Numerous high school and college sports teams across North Dakota also adopted Indian-related names. While the number of such schools has decreased due to consolidation, a significant number still retain these names. This includes 13 primary and secondary schools, five of which are located on reservations, and two colleges: the University of North Dakota (the Fighting Sioux) and Williston State College (the Tetons).
Professor Mary Jane Schneider, a scholar of Indian Studies at UND, offers valuable context in her book, "North Dakota’s Indian Heritage." She notes that the individuals who sought to "honor" Native Americans through the adoption of these symbols were often influenced by romanticized and often inaccurate portrayals of Indian history and culture perpetuated by popular fiction, media, and Hollywood.
Despite these misrepresentations, Schneider emphasizes the profound and undeniable contributions of Native Americans to North Dakota’s history and culture. She challenges readers to envision a North Dakota devoid of any Indian influences, a state without its names, logos, highway symbols, trails, forts, pow wows, iconic figures like Sitting Bull and Sacajawea, historical figures like Joseph Rolette, essential crops like Dakota flint corn and the Great Northern Bean, and a significantly diminished landscape of parks, museums, books, artists, doctors, lawyers, architects, and educators.
According to Schneider, the development of team sports in Europe drew inspiration from games observed among Native American tribes in America, where individuals functioned as a cohesive unit, emphasizing collective effort over individual achievement. UND’s athletic programs trace their roots back to the university’s founding in 1883. For many years, the university’s teams were known as the "Flickertails," possibly inspired by the University of Minnesota’s "Golden Gophers" moniker. The teams were also occasionally referred to as the "Nodaks."
In 1930, following the North Dakota Agricultural College’s adoption of the "Bison" nickname and a student newspaper-led campaign, the University’s Athletic Board of Control officially adopted the name "Sioux." During a period when UND’s athletic teams dominated the North Central Conference, the new team name rapidly gained popularity. The song "Fight On Sioux," characterized by a "tom-tom" beat, remains a beloved fixture at athletic events.
The "Nickel Trophy," adorned with an Indian image on one side and a bison on the other, has been awarded to the victor of the UND-North Dakota State University football game since 1937. Similarly, a "Sitting Bull" trophy is presented to the winner of the UND-University of South Dakota rivalry. The addition of the word "Fighting," inspired by Notre Dame University’s "Fighting Irish," came later.
During the 1950s and 1960s, graphic symbols with Indian themes became increasingly prevalent at UND, extending beyond athletics into other areas of university life. "Sammy Sioux," a cartoon character featured on coffee cups and other merchandise, serves as a quintessential example. The "Golden Feather" organization, a now-defunct men’s pep club, actively promoted "rah rah" activities centered around Indian themes.
For many years, female basketball cheerleaders donned fringed buckskin dresses and feather headdresses. The Varsity Bards, UND’s elite male chorus, often commenced their concerts with what some listeners perceived as Indian "war whooping," a practice that has since been discontinued.
Indian themes were also commonly depicted in the elaborate ice sculptures created annually by UND’s fraternities and sororities as part of the now-defunct "King Kold Karnival." It was one of these sculptures, a vulgar and demeaning portrayal of a Native American woman in 1972, that ignited the controversy that persists to this day.
The Rise of Protests and Activism
The question remains: why were there so few protests before 1972? On a national scale, Native American tribes across the country, empowered by favorable court decisions and the principles of the Civil Rights movement, began asserting their rights to self-determination after decades of control by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). BIA reservation schools had long sought to assimilate Native American children into the majority culture, often at the expense of traditional Indian values.
New activist organizations, such as the American Indian Movement (AIM), led by Vernon Bellecourt, emerged. Inspired by the anti-defamation efforts of Jewish and Black civil rights movements, these activists and a growing number of more conservative Native American leaders concluded that stereotyped cultural images posed a significant obstacle to future progress.
At UND, a more immediate reason existed: prior to the introduction of federal "Great Society" programs in the mid-1960s, very few Native American students had enrolled at the university. However, new externally funded programs, such as "Teacher Corps," which prepared Native American students for careers in education, began to attract a significant number of Native Americans to the campus. Today, approximately 349 students have officially identified themselves as Native American, with many others choosing not to do so. Many of these new students disapproved of the use of Indian imagery to promote "school spirit," particularly in the highly stereotyped manner prevalent a quarter-century ago.
The UND Indian Association (UNDIA) was founded in 1968. Over the years, this organization has provided invaluable leadership experiences for Native American students who have gone on to achieve distinction as UND alumni. Other Native American organizations were subsequently established, and the issue of racist behavior toward Native Americans began to appear on their agendas.
Each of UND’s three most recent presidents was confronted with the issue of Indian imagery early in their respective administrations.
The Clifford Administration (1971-1992)
Thomas Clifford’s administration began with protests and violence directed at a fraternity that had erected an offensive ice sculpture with a Native American theme. President Clifford, a staunch advocate for educational access and opportunity for Native Americans, engaged in negotiations with the aggrieved parties, including leaders of the national American Indian Movement. He ultimately agreed to eliminate those aspects of Native American imagery that were overtly demeaning and offensive.
Virtually all Indian-related logos and symbols, including the popular "Sammy Sioux" caricature, were removed. While the Chicago Blackhawk logo, which had been used by the hockey team since the late 1960s, was retained, a new geometric Indian head logo was introduced in 1976 and adopted for most athletic purposes.
Clifford also insisted that Indian imagery be used with respect and implemented measures to ensure that students, fans, and others were aware of UND’s policy regarding the symbols. He intensified UND’s efforts to incorporate a focus on Native Americans into the curriculum, initially through a minor in Indian Studies, and to develop additional programs to support Native American students.
In 1977, Clifford successfully lobbied the North Dakota Legislature to provide permanent state funding for both a new academic Department of Indian Studies and a separate Native American Programs office to coordinate support services for Native American students. Clifford also encouraged the Chester Fritz Library to expand its significant collection of Indian documents and artifacts, including the renowned White Bull manuscript, written by an Indian fighter at the Little Big Horn, which has garnered international recognition.
Encouraged by Clifford, Laurel Reuter incorporated a strong Native American emphasis into her development of what is now the North Dakota Museum of Art. During the state’s Centennial in 1989, UND was entrusted with working with the tribes to ensure that Native American peoples were recognized in the celebration.
As the Clifford administration drew to a close, UND witnessed an increase in Native American students who strongly advocated for preserving and living by traditional Indian values. One response was a new policy permitting the burning of sweet grass and other plants in UND housing as part of spiritual ceremonies.
Traditionalists occasionally found themselves in conflict with other Native American students who preferred not to mix ideology with their academic pursuits.
In April 1987, a group of traditional students staged a highly publicized sit-in at the Native American Center to protest what they perceived as the University’s lack of responsiveness on a number of issues. This controversy created tension between factions of Native American students. The dispute was resolved, in part, through mediation provided by alumnus David Gipp, president of the United Tribes Technical College in Bismarck.
Gipp represented a new generation of Native American leaders who had established two-year colleges on each of the reservations. The tribal colleges, along with the recruitment of Native American students by other colleges and universities both within and outside the state, offered alternatives to prospective Native American students who previously would have attended UND. Furthermore, increasing pressures from the reservations began to emerge, which would intensify during the Baker administration.
Clifford’s final public statement on the use of the name and symbol, frequently cited in the current debate, was published in a newspaper interview on March 15, 1991: "I just don’t see the reason for changing it right now. The very leaders of the Sioux Nation supported that. When the leaders of the Sioux Nation come and tell me they don’t want it, I’ll respect that."
The Baker Administration (1992-1999)
The Team Name Issue
Shortly after the beginning of the Kendall Baker administration, a disturbing incident occurred when a group of white students hurled racial slurs at Native American children in traditional dance regalia who were participating in a Homecoming float.
During the ensuing controversy, the Standing Rock tribal council requested that UND change the team name, and the University Senate approved a resolution opposing the continued use of the Fighting Sioux name. Baker convened two well-attended University-wide forums and visited the North Dakota reservations to gather input.
On July 27, 1993, he announced his decision: UND would not change the name, but would discontinue the use of the Blackhawk logo. A committee would be established to propose measures to ensure respectful use of the team name by the Athletic Department. One outcome was a mandatory public address announcement before every athletic event.
Baker asserted that the University would reaffirm its commitment to cultural diversity with new, positive initiatives on numerous fronts and would keep the question of the team name open for further discussion and education. This remained the position of the Baker administration, despite several significant developments:
- The emergence of new campus organizations, such as BRIDGES (Building Roads into Diverse Groups Empowering Students) and the Native Media Center, committed to keeping the issue alive.
- The appearance of particularly offensive cheering (such as "Sioux suck!") and imprinted clothing worn by fans from opposing teams, depicting, for example, a bison engaging in sexual acts with a Native American.
- A "hate crime" incident in 1996 in which the life of a Native American student was threatened.
- Efforts by former hockey players, including alumnus Ralph Engelstad, to reinstate the Blackhawk logo.
- An unsuccessful attempt to persuade the State Legislature to urge a name change.
President Baker’s final public statement on the issue was read into the record at a legislative hearing on February 5, 1999:
"A controversy over the use of the Sioux team name was among the first issues that faced me when I came to North Dakota in 1992. After much conversation and consultation, it was my conclusion that there was no consensus on this issue, not even among Native Americans. I decided, therefore, that the respectful use of the team name should continue and, indeed, that the appropriate use of the name could be a positive influence in helping UND encourage respect and appreciation for diversity in all of its forms. Although some individuals disagreed with me then, as they do today, this remains my position on the issue."
"In closing, let me be very clear: Although the approach UND took regarding the team name was and is, in my view, an appropriate one, I also have stated on numerous public occasions that the issue remains on the agenda for dialogue, discussion, and learning."
New Challenges
President Baker also inherited new circumstances concerning UND’s Native American constituency. Although the University Senate had established a goal of increasing Native American enrollment to reflect their percentage of the state’s population, this proved elusive.
Much of the observed "progress" was attributable to a significant decline in white enrollment rather than a substantial increase in the number of Native American students. In the 1990 census, self-identified Native Americans accounted for 25,305 of the state’s 638,800 residents (3.96%).
In the fall of 1992, Native Americans comprised 306 of UND’s enrollment of 12,289 (2.49%), compared to 349 of 10,590 (3.38%) in the fall of 1999.
One reason for the slow progress was the "cherry picking" of Native American high school seniors by out-of-state schools. Additionally, other in-state colleges, particularly North Dakota State and Minot State Universities, increased their efforts to develop Native American-related programs and actively recruit Native American students.
Some have argued that the continued use of the Fighting Sioux team name and logo dissuaded some Native American students from attending UND.
In the fall of 1999, there were 855 self-identified Native Americans enrolled within the North Dakota University System. All 11 campuses enrolled Native Americans, with the largest number (349) at UND. Minot State University enrolled 148, and NDSU enrolled 94.
However, the most significant factor hindering enrollment growth at UND was the remarkable development of the five tribal colleges, led by administrators and faculty with UND degrees. In recent years, the tribal colleges have achieved accreditation, made substantial strides in improving their facilities, and exerted considerable influence through joint action, both within the state and nationally.
Tribal college enrollment in North Dakota in the fall of 1999 totaled 1,045 students. The North Dakota University System has welcomed the tribal colleges as partners in the state’s higher education landscape, fostering "articulation" in curricular matters, developing a cultural diversity tuition waiver program, and assisting the tribal campuses in upgrading their technology.
The system has maintained neutrality on the question of legislative appropriations for the tribal colleges. During the Baker administration, the leadership of the tribal colleges and tribal councils began to make new requests of the University. They advocated for increased direct financial aid and greater access to UND’s highly selective programs, particularly in the health professions.
The tribal college councils and presidents formally objected to an interpretation of Indian history in a textbook written by a UND faculty member, who eventually agreed to revise the offending passage in the book’s next edition.
The tribal presidents, with the support of the councils, requested an end to the practice of writing grant proposals for reservation-related projects without the permission and participation of the reservations themselves, including a share in the overhead monies.
The use of the Fighting Sioux team name and logo continued to attract attention on the reservations.
Initiatives
Beginning in the early 1990s, UND was no longer the sole actor in the state with regard to the education of Native American students. Nevertheless, the Baker administration launched several new initiatives to broaden its commitment to promoting diversity.
University funds were allocated to two committees tasked with supporting diversity activities, and increased subsidies were provided for events such as the annual pow wows of the UND Indian Association and the INMED program. In 1996, the Native American Center was moved to a more accessible location, and the Baker administration expressed its support for a Bremer Foundation-backed effort to raise private funds for a new center.
The most significant development was the proliferation of new, mostly externally funded academic and service programs geared toward Native American students in fields such as nursing, law, communication, and psychology. The University also engaged in new reservation-connected programs, particularly in the health and education sectors.
UND’s best-known program, the federally funded "Indians into Medicine" program (INMED), continued to thrive.
The Kupchella Administration
Charles E. Kupchella inherited the Baker position on the issue of the Fighting Sioux team name and logos. As with his predecessors, the honeymoon was brief. The news that UND had selected a new Indian head symbol for its athletic teams sparked another controversy, in part because proponents of an eventual name change believed that the University had abandoned its open-minded stance on further discussion of the issue.
Kupchella established a commission to examine the issue, assess the range of positions held by various stakeholder groups, and gauge the need for education.
The question of "permission" from the Sioux tribes themselves, and public opinion on the issue, remained complex and multifaceted.
Summary
The History of the Fighting Sioux Mascot Controversy is a complex and multifaceted issue with passionate advocates on both sides. This article attempts to provide an objective overview of the history, the key players, and the arguments that have shaped this ongoing debate.
