The study of human history often relies on piecing together fragments of the past. Archaeological discoveries, particularly skeletal remains, offer invaluable insights into the lives, migrations, and cultures of our ancestors. In the realm of North American archaeology, few discoveries have sparked as much controversy and scientific inquiry as the skeleton known as Kennewick Man. The culmination of decades of research and legal battles, the Smithsonian Institution published "Kennewick Man: The Scientific Investigation of an Ancient American Skeleton," a comprehensive study that details the extensive scientific analysis of this significant find. This publication represents a milestone, especially considering the political and legal obstacles scientists overcame to study and disseminate their findings since the skeleton’s discovery in 1996.
The book, a collection of 33 essays authored by 52 experts, delves into a wide range of topics. These include the peopling of the Americas, the meticulous curation of the skeleton, detailed analyses of its skeletal morphology and pathology, dental characteristics, biomechanical functions, patterns of injury, the context of its burial, the development of 3D models, and the molding and casting techniques employed. Furthermore, the essays explore the broader implications of Kennewick Man for understanding Early Holocene human populations, the use of art to interpret identity, and the role of coastal migration from Southeast Alaska in shaping the human presence in the Americas.
The story of Kennewick Man begins in the fall of 1996, along the banks of the Columbia River in Kennewick, Washington. Two college students stumbled upon a skull while walking along the shoreline. This discovery prompted a series of investigations, beginning with local authorities and culminating in the involvement of archaeologist James Chatters. Chatters, along with county coroner Floyd Johnson, returned to the site and carefully excavated the nearly complete skeleton from the riverbank’s mud and sand.
In his lab, Chatters meticulously laid out the over 300 bones and fragments, beginning the arduous process of examination. Initially, he hypothesized that the skeleton might belong to an early European pioneer or fur trapper. This theory stemmed from the skeleton’s perceived lack of resemblance to Native American remains. However, two key observations challenged this initial assessment.
First, the skeleton’s teeth were remarkably free of cavities and exhibited significant wear, extending down to the roots. These characteristics are typical of prehistoric dentition, indicative of a diet low in sugars and starches. Second, and perhaps more significantly, a stone projectile point was found embedded in the hipbone. This artifact suggested that the individual had been injured, possibly fatally, by a spear or dart dating back to prehistoric times. To determine the skeleton’s age, Chatters sent a metacarpal bone to the University of California, Riverside, for carbon dating. The results revealed that the skeleton was at least 9,000 years old, instantly transforming the discovery into a matter of immense scientific importance.
The collaborative efforts of the scientists contributing to the published volume allowed for a comprehensive reconstruction of the individual’s life. They were able to estimate his height, weight, and body build, and even create a facial approximation. Furthermore, they were able to infer his dietary habits, likely occupation, and potential ancestral origins. The significance of this information lies in the rarity of skeletal remains older than 8,000 radiocarbon years in North America, and the fact that they are usually incomplete when found.
However, to fully appreciate the significance of the research on Kennewick Man, one must understand the complex legal and political environment in which it unfolded. As outlined in one of the essays, Chatters and Douglas Owsley, two key figures in the research, were unaware of the challenges they would face when they began their investigation in August 1996.
The land where the skeleton was found was under the jurisdiction of the US Army Corps of Engineers. The Corps initially seized the skeleton from Chatters and placed it in an evidence locker at the local sheriff’s office, halting further testing. This decision was influenced by demands from local Native American tribes who, upon learning the skeleton’s age, requested its repatriation and reburial. Their claim was based on the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), enacted in 1990. NAGPRA mandates that federal agencies and institutions return Native American cultural items to lineal descendants who are members of federally recognized tribes.
Without thoroughly investigating the tribes’ claims or the scientific implications, the Corps agreed to prevent further study and announced the skeleton’s transfer to a coalition of four tribes on October 24, 1996. This decision sparked outrage among scientists, who argued that the skeleton’s age and unique characteristics warranted further investigation. Despite protests, the Corps initially denied Owsley the opportunity to examine the remains before their reburial.
On October 23, 1996, eight scientists filed a lawsuit in federal court, successfully halting the transfer and initiating a legal battle that would last for over eight years. The lawsuit placed the skeleton’s safety at risk, led to the destruction of the discovery site, and cost millions of dollars. Ultimately, the federal government was compelled to grant scientists access to the skeleton. The case established new limitations on federal agencies’ actions regarding archaeological materials and sites, influencing the interpretation of cultural resource laws.
A central point of contention in the trial was whether remains thousands of years old could be classified as "Native American" under NAGPRA. Previously, the federal government had applied this classification to any item predating European colonization, regardless of its demonstrable connection to contemporary American Indian tribes.
The defendants, including the United States, the Department of Defense, the Corps, the Department of the Interior, and the National Park Service, failed to provide sufficient evidence linking Kennewick Man to modern American Indians. The court deemed the tribal claimants’ oral traditions, which asserted their continuous presence in the region, problematic due to the uncertainty surrounding the tribes’ origins and their claimed antiquity.
This legal precedent has significant implications for the application of NAGPRA. Since 1990, NAGPRA has been used to rebury some of the oldest human remains in North America, based on the assumption of a direct descendant-ancestor relationship between modern tribes and prehistoric skeletons found within their claimed territories. This practice has often hindered scientific investigation of human ancestry without rigorous evaluation of the cultural items’ affiliation with specific American Indian groups.
The question then arises: what have we learned from the study of Kennewick Man, and was the extensive legal struggle worthwhile? The research detailed in the Smithsonian publication offers several key insights:
- Humans living in the Pacific Northwest 9,000 years ago could live beyond 40 years of age.
- They practiced ceremonial burial rituals.
- They were capable of migrating among different groups.
- They used advanced marine animal hunting techniques.
- They used projectile weapons.
- They consumed enough food to develop strong bones and muscles.
These conclusions, derived solely from the skeletal analysis in the absence of associated artifacts, provide a glimpse into the lives of these ancient people.
Owsley, in the concluding chapter, emphasizes that the research is ongoing. Future plans include obtaining a more precise age of death for Kennewick Man, using ancient DNA to trace migrations and lineages, analyzing dental composition to reveal childhood dietary and geographic information, and applying new analytical techniques as they emerge. These continued efforts will further refine our understanding of Kennewick Man and inform future research on similar discoveries.
The story of Kennewick Man highlights the immense potential of human skeletal remains to illuminate our past. While it is understandable that American Indian groups seek to protect the remains of their ancestors, remains as ancient as Kennewick Man hold invaluable information for all of humanity, not just those in the Pacific Northwest. They contribute to the broader narrative of human history. The challenge lies in balancing the respect for the wishes of potential descendants with the pursuit of knowledge that can fill critical gaps in our understanding of human origins and migrations.