Wisconsin, a state renowned for its picturesque landscapes and rich history, holds within its soil secrets that continue to challenge and fascinate archaeologists. Recent discoveries in the western part of the state, specifically near the city of Onalaska, have ignited a passionate debate within the scientific community regarding the interaction, or lack thereof, between distinct cultures nearly a millennium ago. These findings, unearthed during the construction of a residential development, suggest a complex interplay between the Late Woodland and Middle Mississippian peoples, potentially reshaping our understanding of the pre-Columbian history of the region. The central question is: Discovery in Wisconsin stirs scientific debate: Did two different cultures meet?
The story unfolds along the Mississippi River, where a fertile valley once provided sustenance and shelter for various indigenous groups. Approximately 1,000 years ago, around A.D. 1050, the archaeological record indicates a significant event occurred – a possible convergence of cultures, evidenced by the remnants of a large gathering. Imagine a scene reminiscent of a shared feast, a prehistoric "Thanksgiving," albeit with culinary traditions drastically different from our modern celebrations. Evidence suggests the consumption of dog meat, a common protein source for some of these groups, alongside other foods, hinting at an exchange of resources and customs.
Robert "Ernie" Boszhardt, a seasoned regional archaeologist affiliated with the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse’s Mississippi Valley Archaeology Center, spearheaded the excavation at the Onalaska site. The location, initially disturbed by bulldozers preparing the ground for a new subdivision, yielded unexpected and compelling evidence. The artifacts uncovered pointed towards an intermingling of the Late Woodland and Middle Mississippian cultures, a revelation that has prompted a reevaluation of existing archaeological interpretations. Boszhardt himself expressed surprise at the discovery, stating that they "never expected to find anything like this."
The Late Woodland culture, prevalent in Wisconsin before A.D. 1000, left behind a distinctive legacy in the form of effigy mounds. These earthen structures, often shaped like animals or abstract figures, stand as testaments to their spiritual beliefs and connection to the land. Examples of these mounds can still be observed on the campus of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, serving as tangible reminders of the people who once inhabited the area. The Late Woodland people were primarily hunter-gatherers, relying on the natural resources available in the forests and grasslands for their survival. Their lifestyle was likely nomadic, with groups moving periodically to follow game and exploit seasonal food sources.
Around A.D. 1200, a new cultural group emerged in Wisconsin: the Oneota. These people were distinguished by their agricultural practices, particularly the cultivation of corn. Unlike their Late Woodland predecessors, the Oneota were more sedentary, establishing villages and cultivating fields. The transition between the Late Woodland and Oneota periods, spanning roughly A.D. 1000 to 1200, remains a subject of intense debate among archaeologists. The crucial question becomes: What factors led to the disappearance of the Late Woodland culture and the subsequent rise of the Oneota?
One prevailing theory posits that the Oneota culture evolved from the Late Woodland population through cultural diffusion, influenced by external sources. This suggests a gradual transformation, with the Late Woodland people adopting new technologies and practices that ultimately led to the emergence of the Oneota. However, a contrasting viewpoint, championed by archaeologist David Overstreet of Marquette University, proposes a more disruptive scenario. Overstreet argues that the Oneota were a distinct group who migrated into Wisconsin, displacing the Late Woodland people through competition and possibly conflict.
Adding another layer of complexity to the narrative is the influence of the Middle Mississippian culture, centered around the monumental city of Cahokia, located in present-day Illinois, across the Mississippi River from St. Louis. Cahokia, at its peak, was a thriving metropolis, estimated to have housed approximately 25,000 inhabitants. Its scale and complexity rivaled contemporary urban centers in Europe and Mesoamerica. The city boasted impressive architectural features, including towering earthen mounds topped with temples, a central plaza, and fortified walls.
The Middle Mississippian people, known for their sophisticated social organization and agricultural prowess, exerted considerable influence throughout the Midwest and Southeast. Evidence suggests that modern Native American tribes, such as the Creek, Chickasaw, and Natchez, may be descendants of this cultural group. In Wisconsin, the Middle Mississippians established a fortified village at Aztalan, an archaeological site located along the Crawfish River near Lake Mills. The presence of Middle Mississippian settlements in Wisconsin raises questions about the nature of their interactions with the Late Woodland population.
The discovery at Onalaska, with its evidence of both Late Woodland and Middle Mississippian pottery at the same hearth, has fueled the debate surrounding the relationship between these cultures. James Stoltman, a retired professor of archaeology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, believes that the Onalaska site, along with other findings in the region, supports the hypothesis of a cultural blending between the Late Woodland and Middle Mississippian traditions. Stoltman argues that this "marriage of culture" gave rise to the Oneota. The shared meal suggested by the pottery finds implies a degree of interaction and exchange between the two groups.
Stoltman and Boszhardt emphasize that the archaeological record lacks evidence of the Oneota before A.D. 1000, undermining the argument that they migrated into Wisconsin and displaced the Late Woodland people. They contend that the Oneota culture emerged through a fusion of Late Woodland and Middle Mississippian elements, with early Oneota pottery exhibiting characteristics of both traditions. The Discovery in Wisconsin stirs scientific debate: Did two different cultures meet? This is the most important question here.
However, Overstreet vehemently disagrees with this interpretation. He maintains that the Late Woodland, Middle Mississippian, and Oneota cultures were distinct and separate entities, with no significant intermingling or cultural exchange. Overstreet points to radiocarbon dates obtained from Oneota pottery in northeastern Wisconsin, which suggest the presence of this group as early as A.D. 900. He argues that the Oneota migrated into Wisconsin, pushing the Late Woodland people westward.
Overstreet interprets the evidence from Aztalan and Onalaska as indicative of the expansionist tendencies of the Cahokia-based Middle Mississippian culture. He views Aztalan as a frontier outpost of Cahokia, a fortified settlement designed to control the surrounding territory. He suggests that the presence of Middle Mississippian artifacts at Onalaska may represent a brief visit by Cahokian troops or traders, rather than a sustained cultural interaction.
The conflicting interpretations of the archaeological evidence have led to heated exchanges between the researchers. Boszhardt dismisses Overstreet’s radiocarbon dates as unreliable, while Stoltman emphasizes the importance of considering the median dates rather than extreme outliers. The debate underscores the challenges inherent in interpreting the past, particularly when dealing with fragmented and incomplete archaeological records. Discovery in Wisconsin stirs scientific debate: Did two different cultures meet? is the core of this archaeological puzzle.
Despite the ongoing debate, the Onalaska site has provided valuable insights into the pre-Columbian history of Wisconsin. Unfortunately, the site is slated to be reburied under a new residential development, limiting further archaeological investigation. However, Boszhardt expresses hope that future generations of archaeologists will revisit the site and build upon the existing knowledge. The Discovery in Wisconsin stirs scientific debate: Did two different cultures meet? Only time and further archaeological discoveries will provide definitive answers to the complex questions surrounding the interactions between these ancient cultures.