Cornstalk, a name etched in the annals of early American history, evokes images of a noble and complex figure. He was a prominent Shawnee chief who navigated the treacherous landscape of colonial expansion and intertribal relations during the 18th century. His life, shrouded in the mists of time and often recounted through the lens of European observers, presents a fascinating study of leadership, diplomacy, and the tragic consequences of cultural collision. While the exact details of his birth and early life remain somewhat elusive, Cornstalk’s influence on the course of events in the Ohio Valley is undeniable.
Born into a world undergoing profound transformation, Cornstalk emerged as a significant voice for his people. Determining the precise year and location of his birth presents a challenge. While many accounts place his birth around 1720, some suggest dates as early as 1708, 1710, or 1715. Even his grave marker bears the inscription "1727." What is more certain is that he was born in one of the Shawnee villages situated within the upper Susquehanna River drainage, an area encompassing present-day western Pennsylvania. When he was approximately ten years old, his family, along with a larger contingent of Shawnees, embarked on a westward migration towards the Ohio River country.
This relocation was part of a broader pattern of movement for the Shawnee people, who were experiencing continuous displacement and adaptation due to increasing European settlement. They eventually settled along the Scioto River, a major tributary of the Ohio, in what is now southern Ohio. This region became a new center for Shawnee life, and it was here that Cornstalk’s leadership qualities began to solidify.
By the conclusion of the French and Indian War in the early 1760s, Cornstalk had risen to the position of a principal leader within the Shawnee Tribe. He would maintain this role until his untimely death in 1777, a tragic event that occurred at Fort Randolph (present-day Point Pleasant, West Virginia) at the hands of white settlers.
Cornstalk: Warrior and Peacemaker
Despite his eventual pursuit of peace, Cornstalk’s early career was marked by military engagement. In 1763, he led a raid up the Kanawha River, reaching the Greenbrier region and inflicting considerable damage on Virginian settlements. This action highlights the ongoing tensions between the Shawnee and encroaching colonial populations.
A pivotal moment in Cornstalk’s life came in 1774, during Lord Dunmore’s War. He attempted to ambush a portion of Lord Dunmore’s Virginia army at Point Pleasant, strategically located at the confluence of the Kanawha and Ohio Rivers. Although this ambush failed, Cornstalk displayed his diplomatic acumen by negotiating a peace settlement that spared the Shawnee from potential devastation. This demonstrated his capacity to adapt to changing circumstances and prioritize the well-being of his people.
Despite this engagement, Cornstalk and his family are largely remembered as advocates for peace. Leading up to the American Revolution, he guided the tribe through another migration, seeking to distance them from the growing influence of European settlers. His 1777 death, tragically, occurred while on a mission of peace.
The Enigma of Names
The study of Cornstalk is complicated by the existence of multiple names attributed to him in historical records. While "Cornstalk" is the English rendering of a term associated with maize, the precise meanings of his native names are less clear. Hokolesqua, Wynepuechsika, and Keiga-tugh-qua are frequently encountered in literature, yet comprehensive explanations of these terms, beyond their association with Cornstalk, are scarce.
According to John Sugden’s book, "Blue Jacket: Warrior of the Shawnees," Shawnee children traditionally received names at infancy but were free to change them later in life. Artist Hal Sherman suggests that Cornstalk‘s Indian name was Keigh-tugh-qua, signifying a blade or stalk of maize. Indian Agent George Morgan’s journals refer to him as Colesqua, identifying his father as White Fish and his brother as Nimwha. C. Hale Sipe’s "The Indian Chiefs of Pennsylvania" claims he was also known as Tamenebuck, or Taming Buck. Hokolesqua, however, appears to be the most prevalent Shawnee name associated with him in Ohio. Oxford University Press’s "American National Biography" translates Hokoleskwa as "a blade of corn."
Historical documents record variations of his name as Colesqua, Keightughque, and Semachquaan. While a 1764 document attempts to link him to Tawnamebuck, a Shawnee figure at the Lancaster Treaty proceedings in 1748, this association is likely inaccurate.
Noel Schutz, a scholar of Shawnee linguistics, culture, and history, clarifies that hokolesqua derives from hokoleshkwa, meaning "Stalk (of plant)," potentially referring to a stalk of maize. Wynepuechsika is translated as "Stout Man," a name often attributed to Cornstalk‘s son, Peter. Confusion may arise from researchers mistakenly applying Wynepuechsika to the father rather than the son. Schutz suggests that Keigh-taugh-quah, another name linked to Cornstalk, may relate to the stem {takhwa-}, meaning "pound, grind to make bread."
Schutz further notes that during Peter Chartier’s band’s presence among the Creeks in Alabama, the Shawnee "King" was identified as "King Aculusska" of the village of "Shalapheagyee," a Creek variant of Chillichacagees. Aculusska is considered a variant of Hokoleskwa. If this identification is valid, it suggests Cornstalk was in the south at this time with a large contingent of Shawnee who harbored hostile sentiments.
Family Ties and Lineage
The question of Cornstalk‘s genealogy is subject to varying interpretations. In a 1775 speech, Cornstalk seemingly identifies himself as the son of White Fish, but Matthew Arbuckle, who knew both men, suggests otherwise in a letter from December 1776. Moravian missionary records indicate that he was the son or grandson of Paxinosa, a renowned Pennsylvania Shawnee head chief. Some accounts claim his parents were Moytoy II Pigeon of Tellico (of Tainesi, Cherokee) and Hawwaythi.
His marital life is equally debated, with Wikipedia listing three spouses: Helizikinopo, Ounaconoa Moytoy, and Catherine Vanderpool. Elizabeth, a white captive, is also mentioned as a wife prior to her repatriation. Schutz identifies Nonhelema ("grenadier Squaw"), Silverheels, and Nimwha as Cornstalk‘s siblings. His children include Oceano Cornstalk, Elinipsico Cornstalk, Aracoma Cornstalk, Greenbrier, Bluesky, Wynepuechiska (Peter), Wissecapoway, and Piaserka. Other names associated with his offspring include Elizabeth, Esther, Peter, Nern-Pe-Nes-Quah, and Keigh-taugh-quah.
A Life Marked by Conflict and Diplomacy
While details of his early years are scarce, Cornstalk had become a Shawnee tribal chieftain by 1763, leading war parties against white settlements. In 1764, soldiers raided his tribal town and took him captive, holding him hostage at Fort Pitt before he escaped the following year. Over time, he became Sachem of all Shawnee tribes and eventually king of the northern confederacy of Indian tribes, comprising the Shawnees, Delawares, Mingoes, Wyandottes, and Cayugas.
Stories circulate regarding Cornstalk‘s alleged involvement in the French and Indian War and Pontiac’s Rebellion, but their authenticity remains uncertain. Following the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix, settlers and land speculators moved into lands south of the Ohio River in present-day Kentucky, sparking clashes with the Shawnee, who had not been party to the treaty and still claimed the land as their hunting grounds. Cornstalk attempted, unsuccessfully, to prevent the escalation of these hostilities.
On October 10, 1774, Cornstalk led a force of Shawnee and Mingo warriors against Virginian troops at the Battle of Point Pleasant, also known as Dunmore’s War. Despite fielding an equal number of warriors, Cornstalk was defeated. He subsequently pursued a policy of peace, forbidding his braves from harassing white settlers and reluctantly accepting the Ohio River as the boundary of Shawnee lands in the Treaty of Camp Charlotte.
Colonel Benjamin Wilson, a Virginia officer, praised Cornstalk‘s oratorical skills during his speech to Lord Dunmore at Camp Charlotte in 1774, comparing him favorably to renowned Virginian orators Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee.
As the American Revolution commenced, Cornstalk endeavored to maintain his people’s neutrality, representing the Shawnee at treaty councils at Fort Pitt in 1775 and 1776. However, many Shawnees hoped to leverage British aid to reclaim their lost lands, leading to a division within the tribe between a neutral faction led by Cornstalk and militant bands led by figures like Blue Jacket.
The Tragic End and the Cornstalk Curse
During the American Revolution, Cornstalk refused to join the British-led coalition of Indian tribes, believing that his people’s survival depended on maintaining friendly relations with the Virginians. In the spring of 1777, he visited the garrison at Point Pleasant to warn the colonials of the coalition forming and the British efforts to incite his tribesmen to attack.
Fearing an attack, Colonial soldiers seized Cornstalk and his companions, imprisoning them in Fort Randolph as hostages. A month later, Cornstalk‘s son, Ellinipsico, visited the fort. During his visit, a soldier was killed by another Indian, prompting soldiers to rush to Cornstalk‘s quarters in retaliation.
Cornstalk, described as handsome, intelligent, and honorable, faced his executioners calmly. Before being killed along with his son and Chief Red Hawk, he is said to have pronounced a curse upon the land.
This "Cornstalk Curse" is said to have caused many tragedies and disasters in the years to come. His murder transformed the Shawnees from a neutral people into implacable warriors who raided Virginian settlements for two decades.
American political and military leaders were alarmed by Cornstalk‘s murder, viewing him as their only hope for securing Shawnee neutrality. At the insistence of Patrick Henry, the killers were brought to trial but acquitted due to a lack of testimony from their fellow soldiers.
A Final Resting Place
Cornstalk‘s grave has been moved several times. Initially buried near Fort Randolph, his remains were unearthed in 1840 during street construction and moved to the courthouse grounds in Point Pleasant. In 1954, the old courthouse was demolished, leading to the relocation of his grave to Tu-Endie-Wei Park, now Point Pleasant Battle Monument State Park.
Before the final reinterment, amateur archeologists unearthed three teeth and fifteen bone fragments believed to be those of Cornstalk. His final resting place lies near the field of the Battle of Point Pleasant, beside the graves of Colonial soldiers and Frontier Heroine Ann Bailey. The remains were sealed in an aluminum box within a four-ton stone monument bearing the inscription: "Chief Cornstalk, 1727-1777."
