Chief Black Kettle, a name synonymous with peace and resilience in the face of immense adversity, was a prominent leader of the Southern Cheyenne people. Born around 1803 near the Black Hills of South Dakota, and tragically killed on November 27, 1868, in the Battle of Washita River, Black Kettle, also known as Mo’ohtavetoo’o, dedicated his life to protecting his people amidst the tumultuous expansion of the United States into the Great Plains. His story is one of unwavering commitment to peace, a willingness to negotiate in the face of overwhelming odds, and the devastating consequences of broken treaties and unprovoked violence.
The early life of Chief Black Kettle remains largely undocumented. Historical records offer scant details about his formative years before 1832. In that year, he migrated south and joined the Southern Cheyenne, a people who traversed a vast territory encompassing western Kansas and eastern Colorado. This region, rich in resources and vital to the Cheyenne way of life, would soon become a focal point of conflict as westward expansion intensified.
As Black Kettle matured, his leadership qualities became increasingly evident. By 1861, he had risen to become chief of the Wuhtapiu band of the Cheyenne. This marked a significant turning point in his life, solidifying his role as a key figure within the tribe. His influence extended beyond his band, leading to his appointment as a chief of the Council of Forty-Four, the central governing body representing all the Cheyenne villages. This council was responsible for maintaining order, resolving disputes, and making crucial decisions affecting the entire tribe. Black Kettle’s position within the council underscored his reputation for wisdom, fairness, and dedication to the well-being of his people.
The encroachment of European Americans onto Cheyenne lands created a constant struggle to maintain their traditional way of life. This struggle would define much of Chief Black Kettle‘s leadership.
Treaty of Fort Laramie of 1851
The Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1851 represented an early attempt to establish a peaceful coexistence between the US government and various Plains tribes, including the Cheyenne. Black Kettle, recognizing the growing power of the United States, signed the treaty in the hope of securing defined territories for his people and preventing further conflict. The treaty promised to protect Native American lands from white settlement in exchange for the tribes’ agreement to maintain peace and allow the construction of roads and military posts.
However, the treaty proved to be a fragile agreement. The US government demonstrated a consistent unwillingness or inability to control the relentless westward expansion of its citizens. The Pike’s Peak Gold Rush of 1859 triggered a massive influx of prospectors and settlers into Cheyenne territory, leading to displacement, resource depletion, and escalating tensions. The influx of settlers disregarded the treaty stipulations, further diminishing the Cheyenne’s access to vital resources like water and game, thus creating an environment of competition and hostility.
Treaty of Fort Wise
Faced with the increasingly dire situation, Black Kettle adopted a pragmatic approach. He recognized the overwhelming military strength of the United States and the sheer number of immigrants pouring into the Great Plains. In 1861, he and some other Arapaho chiefs surrendered to the commander of Fort Lyon, seeking protection for their people under the terms of the Treaty of Fort Wise.
However, the Treaty of Fort Wise proved to be a devastating blow to the Southern Cheyenne. This treaty ceded a vast majority of the lands guaranteed to them by the Treaty of Fort Laramie to the United States. The new reservation assigned to them was drastically smaller, encompassing less than one-thirteenth of their original territory. This significantly reduced the Cheyenne’s ability to sustain themselves through hunting and agriculture.
The Treaty of Fort Wise was deeply unpopular among a significant portion of the Cheyenne people. Many argued that only a small minority of chiefs had signed the treaty, and without the consent or approval of the entire tribe. This division led to further unrest, with many Cheyenne warriors, particularly the Dog Soldiers, refusing to abide by the treaty’s terms. They initiated attacks on white settlers, raiding farms and wagon trains in resistance to the encroachment on their ancestral lands.
Chief Black Kettle, along with other chiefs who supported the treaty, led their bands to the Sand Creek Reservation, a small and undesirable tract of land in southeastern Colorado. The reservation was located far from the buffalo herds, their primary source of food and supplies, and the land was unsuitable for cultivation. This made it nearly impossible for the Cheyenne to survive on the reservation, further exacerbating their plight.
The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 added another layer of complexity to the situation. The organization of military forces in Colorado Territory led to increased tensions between the settlers and the Native American tribes. Figures like Colonel John Chivington and Colorado Territorial Governor John Evans adopted hard-line policies against the Indians, viewing them as an obstacle to westward expansion.
Treaty of Fort Weld
The Civil War created a situation where the number of federal troops in the area decreased significantly. Without adequate protection, settlers were vulnerable to attacks. Settlers responded by forming volunteer militias, leading to the Colorado War of 1864-1865, a conflict marked by brutality and injustice. This period witnessed one of the most infamous events in the history of the Indian Wars: the Sand Creek Massacre.
By the summer of 1864, the situation had reached a critical point. Southern Cheyenne Dog Soldiers, along with allied Kiowa and Arapaho bands, conducted raids on American settlements, seizing livestock and supplies. Tragically, some settlers were killed during these raids, further fueling the animosity between the two groups. The Hungate massacre, in which a family of settlers was killed, became a rallying cry for pro-war advocates, who displayed the scalped bodies in Denver to incite public outrage.
Governor Evans, believing that tribal chiefs had ordered the attacks and were intent on waging a full-scale war, issued a proclamation ordering all "Friendly Indians of the Plains" to report to military posts or be considered "hostile." He obtained authorization from the War Department to establish the Third Colorado Cavalry, a unit composed of "100-daysers" whose sole purpose was to fight against the Cheyenne and Arapaho.
Black Kettle, hoping to secure the safety of his people, decided to accept Evans’ offer and entered into negotiations. On September 28, 1864, he concluded a peace settlement at Fort Weld outside Denver. The agreement assigned the Southern Cheyenne to the Sand Creek Reservation and required them to report to Fort Lyon, formerly Fort Wise. Black Kettle believed that this agreement would ensure the safety of his people. However, the commanding officer at Fort Lyon was replaced by an ally of Chivington, a man with a known animosity towards Native Americans.
Sand Creek Massacre
Chivington, driven by ambition and pressured by Governor Evans to utilize the Third Colorado Cavalry before their terms expired, saw an opportunity to make a name for himself. On November 28, 1864, he arrived at Fort Lyon with approximately 700 men.
At dawn on November 29, Chivington launched a surprise attack on the unsuspecting Cheyenne village at Sand Creek. Despite Black Kettle’s efforts to signal his peaceful intentions by raising an American flag and a white flag above his tipi, the attack continued unabated. Soldiers ignored these signals and unleashed a torrent of violence upon the defenseless village.
The Colorado forces indiscriminately killed 163 Cheyenne, the majority of whom were women and children. The village was burned to the ground, and all their winter food supplies were destroyed. The massacre was a horrific act of brutality that shocked the nation, but did little to quell the desire for westward expansion.
Black Kettle miraculously survived the Sand Creek Massacre, though his wife was severely wounded. He later returned to rescue her, and she survived the attack, only to be killed four years later at the Washita Massacre.
Despite the horrors he witnessed at Sand Creek, Black Kettle remained committed to peace. He continued to counsel his people to avoid further conflict, even as other Cheyenne warriors sought revenge for the massacre through continued raids on wagon trains and nearby ranches.
Black Kettle’s Band Moves to Kansas
In October 1865, Black Kettle and other Indian leaders arranged an uneasy truce on the plains, signing a new treaty that exchanged the Sand Creek Reservation for two reservations in southwestern Kansas. However, these reservations did not include their traditional hunting grounds, further limiting their ability to sustain themselves.
As Black Kettle led his band to Kansas, many refused to follow him. Some headed north to join the Northern Cheyenne in Lakota territory, while others ignored the treaty altogether and continued to roam over their ancestral lands. These roaming braves, referred to as Dog Soldiers, allied themselves with the Cheyenne war chief, Roman Nose.
The relationship between Black Kettle and the Dog Soldiers is a subject of historical dispute. Some accounts suggest that many of the warriors returned to Black Kettle’s camp after their attacks, and that white prisoners, including children, were held within his encampment. However, it is unclear whether Black Kettle had the authority to control the actions of the younger warriors.
Treaty of Little Arkansas River
Black Kettle continued to negotiate with US officials, achieving the Treaty of Little Arkansas River on October 14, 1865. This treaty promised "perpetual peace" and lands in reparation for the Sand Creek Massacre. However, its practical effect was to dispossess the Cheyenne yet again and require them to move to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma).
Medicine Lodge Treaty
Black Kettle was among the leaders who signed the Medicine Lodge Treaty of 1867, another attempt to establish peace between the Cheyenne and the United States. However, the promised provisions were never delivered, and many Cheyenne warriors joined Roman Nose in continuing their resistance.
Washita River Massacre
As the Cheyenne continued to raid farms in Kansas and Colorado, General Philip Sheridan launched a campaign against the Cheyenne encampments. On November 27, 1868, George Armstrong Custer led an attack on Black Kettle’s village on the Washita River.
Despite the presence of a white flag above Black Kettle’s tipi, Custer ordered an attack on the village. Black Kettle and his wife were killed, along with approximately 150 other Cheyenne. The remaining villagers were taken prisoner, and the village and all their winter supplies were destroyed.
The death of Chief Black Kettle marked a tragic end to the Cheyenne’s hopes of maintaining their independence. By the following year, all had been driven from the plains and confined to reservations.
Black Kettle is buried in the Indian Cemetery in Colony, Oklahoma, a testament to his legacy as a leader who fought for peace and justice in the face of overwhelming adversity. His life serves as a reminder of the devastating consequences of broken treaties and the importance of honoring commitments to Native American tribes.