The term "California Mission Indians" refers to the diverse Indigenous peoples of Southern California who were forcibly incorporated into the Spanish mission system. This system, established along the coastal regions of the southern two-thirds of present-day California, profoundly impacted their traditional way of life. Specifically, the designation encompasses all Indigenous groups who inhabited the San Diego area when the Spanish arrived in 1769, marking the beginning of a transformative and often tragic period in their history. The story of California Mission Indians is one of cultural disruption, forced labor, resistance, and resilience.
Prior to the arrival of the Spanish, the southern and central Pacific coast of California flourished as one of the most densely populated areas north of Mexico. Estimates suggest a population as high as 300,000, comprised of numerous distinct tribes speaking approximately 80 different languages. This vibrant tapestry of cultures showcased a rich diversity of traditions, customs, and spiritual beliefs.
Among these diverse groups, the Chumash tribe stood out as the largest, with an estimated population of around 20,000 members. Archaeological evidence suggests that despite the linguistic and cultural diversity, inter-tribal warfare was not a prevalent feature of life in this region. This indicates a degree of coexistence and cooperation among the various groups.
The Imposition of the Mission System
In 1769, a pivotal moment arrived with the expedition led by Franciscan missionary Father Junípero Serra and a Spanish military force. Journeying north from Mexico, they reached present-day San Diego and established the first of 21 missions that would eventually stretch northward towards San Francisco. The construction of these missions was a monumental undertaking, relying heavily on the coerced labor of the Indigenous population.
The location of the missions was strategically chosen, often near existing Indigenous settlements. This proximity provided a readily available pool of potential Christian converts, as well as a workforce to sustain the mission system’s economic activities. As conversions proceeded slower than desired, the Spanish resorted to forceful tactics, including the kidnapping of thousands of Indigenous people. Those who resisted faced harsh punishments, including whipping, branding, mutilation, and even execution. The California Mission Indians were about to face unimaginable brutality.
The impact of the mission system on the Indigenous population was devastating. Thousands succumbed to diseases such as malaria, smallpox, and scarlet fever, against which they had no natural immunity. The Spanish period witnessed three major epidemics: a respiratory epidemic in 1777, a pneumonia and diphtheria epidemic in 1802, and a measles epidemic in 1806.
However, disease was not the sole driver of the rapid decline in the Indigenous population under mission rule. Significant decline can be attributed to alterations in diet and inadequate nutrition, as the traditional food sources and practices were disrupted by the mission system’s agricultural demands and imposed food rations.
Resistance to Spanish Domination
Contrary to some historical narratives that portray the California natives as passively accepting the missions, Spanish domination, and conversion to Christianity, resistance was a significant and persistent feature of this period. The initial reception of the Franciscans was far from welcoming.
Organized resistance, led by village chiefs and influential shamans, manifested in attacks on the Franciscan missionaries and, later, on the Spanish soldiers sent to protect them. These acts of defiance underscored the deep-seated resentment and opposition to the disruption of their traditional way of life.
In 1771, the Indigenous people launched two attacks on the San Gabriel Mission in the Los Angeles basin. These attacks were directly triggered by the rape of a Kumeyaay woman by Spanish soldiers assigned to protect the Franciscans. The Spanish response was brutal: one chief was killed, and his head was displayed on a pole as a warning to others.
In 1775, the Kumeyaay people at the Mission San Diego staged a full-scale revolt, burning the mission and killing one of the priests. Fearing reprisals from the nearby Spanish presidio, the attackers retreated into the interior, taking clothing, trinkets, and religious icons as booty. Spanish troops were subsequently dispatched to capture the rebellion’s leaders. The California Mission Indians fought to protect their way of life.
This rebellion was fueled by the forced labor and the sexual abuse of Kumeyaay women. The Indigenous people viewed the Spanish priests as shamans and held them responsible for the diseases and misfortunes that plagued their communities. Killing the priest, whom they perceived as an evil shaman, and removing sacred objects from the mission were seen as acts of cleansing the land of the spiritual evil that had taken root.
Spanish investigators identified at least fifteen villages, including several so-called Christian villages, as participants in the rebellion. Leaders of the insurrection included Oroche of Macate, Francisco of Cullamac, Rafael of Janat, and Ysquitil of Abusquel.
In 1776, the Spanish Franciscans subjected a number of Ohlone and Costanoan Indians to flogging and threats of execution in an attempt to quell further resistance to their missionary activities. In the same year, Indigenous people attacked the San Luis Obispo Mission, setting fire to the roofs of the buildings.
The Role of Shamans and Continued Resistance
In 1785, Toypurina, a Gabrielino medicine woman considered to possess supernatural powers, rallied Indigenous people from six villages to revolt against the San Gabriel Mission. Toypurina, believed to be capable of killing with her magic, participated in the attack. However, the priests and soldiers had been forewarned, and the insurgents were arrested. During her trial, Toypurina vehemently denounced the Spanish for trespassing on and destroying Indigenous lands.
Another Indigenous leader, Nicolas Jose, voiced his opposition to the Spanish prohibition of traditional Indian ceremonies. Most of the Indigenous people involved in the revolt were sentenced to 20 lashes, and Toypurina was deported to the San Carlos Mission. The public flogging of the Indigenous people was a ritualistic display of Spanish domination, a common practice throughout Spanish America.
Many Mission Indians sought to escape the harsh conditions and forced conversion by running away and hiding. In 1795, over 200 Costanoan Indians staged a mass escape from Mission Dolores, and 280 Indigenous "converts" fled from the San Francisco Mission. The following year, another 200 Indians escaped from the San Francisco mission.
In 1798, 138 Indigenous "converts" fled from the Santa Cruz Mission, and in 1805, 200 converts fled from the San Juan Bautista Mission. These mass escapes underscored the deep dissatisfaction and desire for freedom among the Mission Indians.
In 1811, Nazario, a Mission Indian cook at the San Diego Mission, was subjected to 124 lashes. He retaliated by poisoning one of the priests. This act reflects the Indigenous worldview, where Franciscan missionaries were often seen as powerful shamans or witches, and poisoning was a culturally appropriate way of dealing with such individuals.
In 1812, a group of Indigenous converts at the Santa Cruz mission murdered a Franciscan missionary in response to his plans to punish Indians with a cat-o’-nine-tails with barbed metal on the ends of the leather straps.
The Chumash Revolt and Later Uprisings
In 1824, the Chumash people at the La Purísima Mission revolted against the ill-treatment and forced labor imposed by the priests and soldiers. The revolt was triggered by the routine beating of an Indian at the Santa Ynez mission.
A force of 2,000 Indigenous people captured La Purísima and were reinforced by Indians from Santa Ynez and San Fernando. For over a month, the Indians who occupied the La Purísima and Santa Ynez missions successfully resisted Spanish military attempts to restore order. News of the revolt reached Santa Barbara, where Indigenous people attacked the soldiers, sacked the mission, and then retreated to the back country.
The Spanish recaptured the missions after four months. The four leaders of the revolt, Mariano, Pacomio, Benito, and Bernarde, were sentenced to ten years of chain-gang labor.
According to traditional Chumash beliefs, the appearance of a twin-tailed comet in the night sky was interpreted as a sign foretelling great changes.
In 1828, Mission Indians, under the leadership of Yokuts chiefs Estanislao (Stanislaus) and Cipriano, revolted against the Mexicans in the San Joaquin Valley. Refugees from the Santa Cruz, San José, and San Juan Bautista Missions joined the revolt. Estanislao established a fortified village ringed with deep trenches and successfully repelled three counterattacks by the Mexican army.
In 1829, Mexican troops attacked Estanislao’s stronghold. After several hours of intense fighting, the Mexicans breached the stockade using canon fire. They then retreated for the night. In the morning, the Mexicans found the Indian camp deserted. Thinking that Estanislao and his rebels had fled to another stockaded village, the Mexicans attacked the village. They set fire to the stockade and shot all who tried to escape, only to discover that Estanislao was not among the dead.
Estanislao later secretly returned to the Mission San José and asked the priest for a pardon, which was granted on the condition that he never raid again.
The End of the Mission Period and its Aftermath
In 1830, Christian Indians under the leadership of Francisco Jiménez, the Indian alcalde of the Mission San José, attempted to capture some Indians who had run away from the mission and were living with the Ochejamne Miwok. The Miwok repelled the invaders.
Jiménez then recruited the aid of some American trappers, including Kit Carson, who fought the Miwok for an entire day, killing many Indians, and burning the village. They took some captives back to the mission. Later the Sierra Miwok captured about 60 horses from the American trappers. Kit Carson and others chased the Miwok for over 100 miles into the Sierras. They attacked the Miwok camp, killing eight and taking three children captive, and recaptured most of their horses.
In 1833, American fur trappers discovered a village of Spanish-speaking Chumash living near Walker Pass. This group of Indians were renegades who fled from the Spanish missions during the 1824 revolt. They were raising corn and had horses.
The Mission Indian Period concluded in 1834, following Mexico’s independence from Spain and the subsequent secularization of the missions. The mission Indians were then free to leave, but they had no villages to return to.
The California Gold Rush of 1849 intensified the slaughter of the Mission Indians. The mountain tribes encountered European miners who saw Indian women as concubines and Indian men as slaves or even as shooting targets for sport.
From an estimated high population of over 300,000 before contact, the Indian population in California plummeted to approximately 16,000 in 1900. Disease, homicide, and the loss of their native environment and food sources led to a staggering 99.5% decrease in the Indian population in California within just 131 years, or about three generations.
The legacy of the California Mission Indians is a complex and painful one, marked by forced assimilation, cultural disruption, and immense suffering. Despite these hardships, the descendants of these resilient peoples continue to preserve their cultural heritage and advocate for their rights.