California stands out as a state with a profound and diverse Native American heritage. Boasting the largest Native American population and the greatest number of distinct tribes within the United States, the state’s Indigenous landscape is characterized by remarkable linguistic and cultural variety. Adding to this complexity, a government relocation program in the 1960s brought members of numerous non-California tribes into the state, further enriching its cultural tapestry. Understanding the nuances of these groups requires acknowledging that the boundaries of the California cultural area do not precisely align with the state’s modern borders. Some tribes along the eastern edge, bordering Nevada, are classified as Great Basin tribes, while those near Oregon are considered Plateau tribes. Furthermore, Indigenous peoples residing in Baja California, without territory extending into California, are categorized as Indigenous peoples of Mexico.
Within the mosaic of California Indian Bands, one finds both independent tribes with unique cultural identities and sub-tribes or bands closely related to larger tribal groups. To gain specific information about individual tribes within California, it’s essential to consult resources dedicated to each respective group. This article, however, offers a broad overview of the major cultural areas and the defining characteristics of the tribes within them.
Northwest California Bands
This region, defined by its lush rainforest environment, encompasses the traditional territories of the Tolowa, Shasta, Karok, Yurok, Hupa, Whilikut, Chilula, Chimarike, and Wiyot tribes. The environment profoundly shaped their way of life. Villages were strategically located along the numerous rivers, lagoons, and coastal bays that punctuated the landscape. While a network of trails crisscrossed the territory, the primary mode of transportation was the dugout canoe. Masterfully crafted from the towering coast Redwood trees, these canoes facilitated travel along rivers and across wider waterways like the Klamath. The redwoods themselves provided vital building materials. The tribes developed ingenious methods for felling these giants, using fire to burn the base and elkhorn wedges to split the wood. Redwood, and sometimes cedar, planks were then used to construct sturdy, rectangular gabled homes. Basketry, an art form of significant cultural importance, was practiced using the twined technique, resulting in a diverse range of designs. Remarkably, many of these traditional arts persevered through the 20th century, experiencing a vibrant resurgence in recent decades.
The ritual life of these California Indian Bands was elaborate, centered around the World Renewal ceremony, held annually in the fall in the largest villages. Wealthy men sponsored these ceremonies, the purpose of which was to avert future natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, crop failures, or poor salmon runs. These ceremonies involved supplication to supernatural spirits, and due to the severe threats these disasters posed to the community, they were conducted with meticulous attention to detail and the utmost solemnity. Despite the economic hardships that many of these groups face today, these traditional rituals continue to be practiced, a testament to the enduring strength of their cultural heritage.
Governance within these tribes rested with the most wealthy and powerful lineage leaders. The emphasis on wealth within these cultures is reflected in the concept of private ownership of essential food resources, such as oak groves and fishing areas, highlighting the importance of resource management and social stratification.
Northeast California Bands
The Northeast region of California was home to the Modoc, Achumawi, and Atsugewi tribes. The western portion of their territory was abundant in acorns and salmon, providing a reliable food source. However, moving eastward, the climate shifted from mountainous to a high desert topography. In this drier environment, food resources shifted to grass seeds, tuber berries, and game animals such as rabbits and deer.
The tribes in this region found tule, a type of bulrush, to be an incredibly versatile resource. The root bulb could be consumed as food, and the stalks could be laced together to create floor mats and structural coverings. The volcanic mountains in the western part of their territory provided obsidian, a valuable trade commodity used for tools and weapons. The social-political organization of these tribes was characterized by independent villages connected through marriage ties. Following European contact, the Achumawi and Atsuguewi experienced a devastating population decline due to vigilante violence and respiratory diseases. The Modoc tribe is particularly remembered for their fierce resistance in 1872 against forced removal to Oregon. Their struggle stands as the last major military defense of Native sovereignty in 19th-century California Indian history.
In the early 20th century, some surviving members of these California Indian Bands received public land allotments. In 1938, the XL Rancheria was established for some of these Indians. Sadly, the surviving Modoc people were exiled to either Oregon or Oklahoma, further disrupting their cultural continuity.
Central California Bands
Central California encompasses a vast and diverse territory, traditionally inhabited by the Bear River, Mattale, Lassick, Nogatl, Wintun, Yana, Yahi, Maidu, Sinkyone, Wailaki, Kato, Yuki, Pomo, Lake Miwok, Wappo, Coast Miwok, Interior Miwok, Monache, Yokuts, Costanoan, Esselen, Salinan, and Tubatulabal tribes.
The region presents a wide range of environments, from the coastal areas and nearby mountain ranges to the vast central valleys and the slopes of the Sierra Nevada. Despite these differences, all of these tribes benefited from an abundance of acorns and salmon, readily available in the waterways north of Monterey Bay. Deer, elk, antelope, and rabbits were also plentiful throughout the region.
Basketry reached its zenith in this area, with the Pomo basket makers creating some of the most elaborate and intricate examples of this art form. Both coiled and twine-type baskets were produced throughout the region. Fortunately, basket making survived the period of suppression of Native arts and culture and has once again become an important culturally defining element for Indians in this region.
A common feature of this area was the semi-subterranean roundhouse, where elaborate Kuksu dances were held, and continue to be held, to this day. These rituals are intended to ensure the renewal of the world’s natural foods, both plant and animal. Despite differences between tribes, these rituals share similar purposes, reflecting a common worldview and a deep connection to the land.
Like elsewhere in California, villages were fiercely independent and governed internally. The abundant food supply allowed for the establishment of villages of up to 1000 individuals, including craft specialists who produced specific objects and goods for a living. In smaller communities, each family produced all that was necessary for survival.
Southern California Bands
Southern California presents a varied and somewhat unique region of the state. Beginning in the north, tribes found in this area are the Chumash, Alliklik, Kitanemuk, Serrano, Gabrielino, Luiseno, Cahuilla, and the Kumeyaay. The landmass and climate varied considerably, from the windswept offshore Channel Islands, principally inhabited by Chumash-speaking peoples, to the arid inland deserts. Communication with their mainland neighbors was facilitated by large and graceful planked canoes, called "Tomols," powered by double-bladed paddles. These vessels were manufactured by a secretive guild of craftsmen and could carry hundreds of pounds of trade goods and up to a dozen passengers.
Like their northern neighbors, the Takic-speaking peoples of San Nicholas and Santa Catalina Islands built planked canoes and actively traded rich marine resources with mainland villages and tribes. Shoreline communities enjoyed the rich animal and faunal life of the ocean, bays, and wetlands environments. Interior tribes, like the Serrano, Luiseno, Cahuilla, and Kumeyaay, shared an environment rich in Sonoran life zones, featuring vast quantities of rabbits, deer, and an abundance of acorns, seeds, and native grasses. At the higher elevations, Desert Bighorn sheep were hunted.
Villages varied in size from poor desert communities with villages of as few as 100 people to the teeming Chumash villages with over a thousand inhabitants. Conical homes of arrow weed, tule, or croton were common, while whale bone structures could be found on the coast and nearby Channel Islands. Interior groups manufactured clay storage vessels, sometimes decorated with paint. Baskets were ubiquitous, manufactured with unique designs. Catalina Island possessed a soapstone, or steatite, quarry. This unique stone was soft and could easily be carved with cutting tools and shaped into vessels, pipes, and cooking slabs.
Each tribe and community had a chieftain, sometimes female, whose duty it was to organize community events and settle conflicts among their followers. This leader was usually assisted by a crier or assistant. Shamans, or Indian doctors, were known everywhere and greatly respected. The ritual use of the hallucinogen jimsonweed (Datura meteloides) was primarily reserved for male puberty rituals. Like other California Indian Bands, society was divided into three classes: the elite, a middle class, and a less successful lower class. These robust peoples were among the first to encounter the strangers who would change their world forever. The history of California Indian Bands is a testament to their resilience and enduring cultural strength in the face of tremendous challenges.