The Atsugewi Indians represent a distinct and historically significant group within the broader tapestry of California’s indigenous peoples. They are one of the eleven bands that comprise the Pit River Tribe, a confederation of Native American groups inhabiting Northeastern California. Their ancestral lands were primarily situated south of the Pit River, encompassing portions of present-day Lassen County and eastern Shasta County. Beyond their geographical location, the Atsugewi are also distinguished by their unique language, a branch of the Hokan linguistic family.
Linguistic Heritage: A Palaihnihan Branch
The Atsugewi language, also referred to as Atsuge, belongs to the Palaihnihan branch of the Hokan language family. This linguistic connection links them most closely to their northern neighbors, the Achumawi. Together, Atsugewi and Achumawi form the Palaihnihan subgroup, highlighting their shared linguistic roots within the larger Hokan family, a family with widespread representation across California and beyond. The preservation of this language is crucial to maintaining the cultural identity of the Atsugewi Indians.
Intertribal Relations: Allies and Adversaries
Historically, the Atsugewi Indians maintained generally amicable relationships with their surrounding tribes. They enjoyed peaceful interactions with the Achumawi to the north, the Yana to the west, and the Maidu to the south. These relationships fostered trade, cultural exchange, and mutual support. However, their existence was not without its challenges. The Modoc and Paiute tribes, originating from areas further north and east, posed a threat in the form of raiding parties. These groups would occasionally venture into Atsugewi territory, capturing individuals and enslaving them, disrupting the peace and stability of Atsugewi communities.
Settlement Patterns: Valleys and Creeks
Atsugewi villages were strategically located within the valleys along the numerous creeks that flowed northward into the Pit River. These waterways, including Hat Creek, Horse Creek, and Burney Creek, provided essential resources such as water for drinking and irrigation, as well as fish for sustenance. Consequently, the Atsugewi are sometimes referred to as the Hat Creek Indians, a testament to the significance of this particular waterway in their history and culture.
Villages varied in size, ranging from small settlements with just a few dwellings to larger communities comprising up to twenty-five houses. These villages served as the focal points of Atsugewi social and economic life.
Leadership and Governance: The Village Headman
Each Atsugewi village was led by a headman, a respected member of the community who played a crucial role in maintaining order and ensuring the well-being of the villagers. The headman’s responsibilities included organizing hunting and gathering expeditions to provide food for the community, settling disputes and resolving conflicts within the village, and representing the village in interactions with other groups.
Atsuge and Apwaruge: Two Distinct Groups
The Atsugewi Indians were further divided into two distinct subgroups, each characterized by its geographical location and the dominant vegetation within its territory.
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Atsuge: Meaning "pine-tree people," the Atsuge inhabited the region north of Mt. Lassen, an area marked by extensive lava flows resulting from volcanic activity. The presence of pine forests was a defining characteristic of their environment.
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Apwaruge: Meaning "juniper tree people," the Apwaruge resided on the plains east of the Atsuge territory. Juniper trees were abundant in their environment, distinguishing it from the forested lands of the Atsuge.
The name Atsugewi itself is derived from "Atsuke," a place name along Hat Creek, further emphasizing the importance of this location to the Atsugewi people.
Dwellings: Adapting to the Seasons
The Atsugewi constructed different types of dwellings to suit the changing seasons and their nomadic lifestyle.
Winter Homes: Warmth and Protection
Winters in Atsugewi territory were harsh, necessitating the construction of sturdy and well-insulated winter homes. These houses were typically oval in shape, featuring a central pole that provided structural support. Additional poles sloped down from the center pole to the sides, creating a frame for the house. The frame was then covered with layers of bark and earth, providing insulation against the cold. A small entrance was located at one end of the house, and a smoke hole in the center of the roof allowed for ventilation. These winter homes were often large enough to accommodate several families, sometimes reaching lengths of twenty to thirty feet.
Summer Shelters: Temporary and Practical
During the summer months, when the Atsugewi traveled across their territory to gather food, they constructed temporary shelters at their camping locations. These shelters were simple structures consisting of four poles leaned together and tied at the top, forming a conical frame. The base of the frame created a circle with a diameter of twelve to fifteen feet. Cedar bark slabs were then used to cover the poles, providing protection from the sun and rain.
Sweathouses: Ritual Cleansing
In addition to dwellings, the Atsugewi also constructed sweathouses, which were used for ritual cleansing and purification. The headman typically had a larger sweathouse located in the village, which was used by the men. Smaller sweathouses were also built in summer camps.
Ceremonies: A Balance of Work and Rest
The Atsugewi placed a high value on hard work and productivity, which was reflected in their ceremonial practices. Unlike some of their neighboring tribes, they had relatively few elaborate ceremonies. However, they did observe a weekly day of rest, during which the headman would call for a cessation of all hunting and gathering activities. This day was intended for relaxation and social interaction.
While the Atsugewi sometimes attended the large dances and ceremonies of the Maidu and Wintun tribes, they did not typically hold such events themselves. They did, however, perform smaller dances to mark important life events, such as the coming-of-age ceremonies for boys and girls, war dances before and after battles, and singing sessions prior to large hunts.
Clothing: Adapting to a Cold Climate
The Atsugewi adapted their clothing to the cold climate of their territory, utilizing both deerskin and tule reeds as primary materials.
Winter Attire: Deerskin for Warmth
During the winter months, deerskin shirts and leggings were the preferred choice of clothing, particularly among wealthier individuals. Deerskin provided excellent insulation against the cold and wind.
Summer Attire: Tule for Comfort
At other times of the year, women wore skirts made of tule reeds, which were bundled together and then sewn or woven into mats. Men typically wore tule mats tied around their hips.
Footwear and Accessories: Protection from the Elements
Leggings and moccasins were also made from tule reeds. In the winter, men sometimes wore deerskin moccasins with the hair left on the inside for added warmth. Pieces of rabbit fur were wrapped around the hands and wrists to create gloves. Due to the cold climate of their region, the Atsugewi placed a strong emphasis on having warm and protective clothing.
Subsistence: A Diverse Diet
The Atsugewi relied on a diverse range of resources for sustenance, including fish, game, and plant foods.
Fishing: Salmon and Trout
The Atsugewi had friendly relations with their neighbors, the Achumawi, allowing them access to the Pit River, where they caught salmon. In the smaller streams within their own territory, they caught trout and other smaller fish.
Hunting: Deer as a Prized Food
Deer meat was considered a prized food, particularly among wealthier families. Atsugewi men spent a significant amount of time hunting deer, both individually and in groups. Any deer or antelope that was caught was divided among the people of the village by the chief.
Hunting Techniques: Bows, Arrows, and Traps
Bows and arrows with poison on the tips were used to hunt grizzly bears. Rabbits, ducks, mud hens, and other birds were caught with nets or shot with arrows. The Atsugewi had specific preferences regarding which animals and birds were considered suitable for consumption, avoiding certain species such as gray fox, coyote, eagle, buzzard, magpie, and crow.
Plant Foods: Roots, Seeds, and Acorns
At the end of the long winter, the first available plant food was tree moss. Later in the season, epos and camas roots were gathered, along with sunflower seeds. Acorns were a staple food for many California tribes, but oak trees grew primarily in the western part of Atsugewi territory. Those living in the eastern part had to travel long distances to obtain acorns from other Atsugewi areas or from the Yana or Achumawi.
Food Storage: Preparing for Winter
The Atsugewi worked diligently during the summer months to gather and store enough food to sustain them through the long, snowy winter. Fish and deer meat were smoked and dried by hanging them on poles. They were then stored in pits dug in the ground or in baskets hung in the trees. Acorns, nuts, seeds, and roots were also dried for storage.
Material Culture: Baskets, Nets, and Tools
The Atsugewi were skilled artisans, crafting a variety of tools and implements from natural materials.
Baskets: Carrying and Storing Food
Baskets were essential for carrying and storing food. They were made using a technique called twining, in which upright pieces of willow or other shoots were interwoven with plant fibers. The baskets were often decorated with pieces of fern. Large cone-shaped baskets, about five feet long, were used to catch fish.
Fishing Nets: Harvesting Aquatic Resources
The Atsugewi also made fishing nets. The cord used to make the nets was created by twisting pieces of tule reeds. Some wealthy men owned canoes, which were used for fishing and transportation.
Hunting Tools: Bows, Arrows, Spears, and Traps
For hunting, the men used wooden bows and arrows, spears, and traps. They dug pits along deer paths (which led to the name of the Pit River) and caught deer and other animals with rope snares. The rope was made from tule reeds.
Social Values: Hard Work and Wealth
The Atsugewi Indians placed a high value on hard work and productivity. A person who worked diligently was admired, while a lazy person was shunned. Children were taught the importance of work from a young age. Individuals born into poor families could improve their social standing by working hard and accumulating wealth.
Leadership and Wealth: The Headman’s Responsibilities
A man chosen to be the headman of a village was typically someone who had worked hard and become wealthy. However, the headman was also expected to provide feasts and give gifts to visitors, which could sometimes diminish his personal wealth.
Clamshell Beads: A Form of Currency
Clamshell beads served as a form of money in trade. These beads, shaped into disks and strung on cords, were obtained from tribes along the Pacific Coast to the south.
Wealth Indicators: Furs, Deerskins, and Tools
Furs and deerskins were also considered a sign of wealth and were displayed in a rich man’s lodge. Other indicators of wealth included canoes, baskets, and tools. Wealthy men would often loan these items to less fortunate individuals, receiving a small gift of food in return. Rich men also maintained trading partnerships with individuals in other groups, exchanging goods and gifts.