The story of the Assiniboine and Gros Ventre people, intertwined with the history of the Fort Belknap Reservation, is a rich tapestry woven from ancient traditions, pivotal encounters, and enduring resilience. While written records offer glimpses into this history, the deepest roots lie in the oral traditions and collective memories held within the communities themselves. These vibrant narratives, passed down through generations, continue to shape the identity and spirit of the Assiniboine and Gros Ventre nations. Though some historical details have faded with time, much remains a vital part of their cultural heritage, awaiting further documentation and recognition. This timeline provides a brief overview of key events in the history of the Assiniboine and Gros Ventre Tribes and the Fort Belknap Reservation.
Time Immemorial: Creation Narratives
At the heart of Assiniboine and Gros Ventre cosmology lies the creation story, a testament to the power of collaboration and divine intervention. In this ancient narrative, Iktomi, the trickster figure, and Earthmaker, also known as The Keeper of the Flat Pipe, tasked the animal kingdom with a monumental task: to retrieve mud from the depths of the primordial waters. After numerous attempts, several animals succeeded in their mission. This precious mud was then used by Earthmaker to form the land, bringing forth a world upon which life could flourish. This creation story reflects a deep connection to the natural world and underscores the importance of perseverance and cooperation.
Traditional Life: Roots and Origins
Before their documented history in Montana, the Assiniboine and Gros Ventre followed distinct paths. The Assiniboine, meaning "stone boilers," were once part of the Yanktonai Sioux, residing near the Great Lakes region, specifically around Lake Superior. Their name reflects their unique method of cooking, using heated stones to boil water. The Gros Ventre, meaning "big belly" in French, also known as the A’aninin, meaning "white clay people", possessed linguistic ties to the Arapaho. Prior to their arrival in Montana, the Gros Ventre occupied lands in southern Saskatchewan and extended northward to the Saskatchewan River, establishing themselves as skilled hunters and resourceful inhabitants of the northern plains.
1600: The Assiniboine Divergence
A significant turning point in Assiniboine history occurred around 1600 when they separated from the Yanktonai Sioux. This division led the Assiniboine westward, toward the areas surrounding the Lake of the Woods and Lake Winnipeg. This migration marked the beginning of their distinct identity and cultural evolution. Some Assiniboine bands continued their westward journey, settling in the southern reaches of Saskatchewan, further solidifying their presence on the northern plains.
1754: First Contact for the Gros Ventre
The year 1754 marks the Gros Ventre’s initial documented encounter with Europeans. This meeting took place somewhere between the north and south forks of the Saskatchewan River, a region that served as a vital corridor for trade and exploration. This encounter heralded a period of increasing interaction with European traders and explorers, which would profoundly shape the future of the Gros Ventre people.
1780 – 1783: The Scourge of Smallpox
The late 18th century brought immense suffering to the Gros Ventre as devastating smallpox epidemics swept across the plains between 1780 and 1783. These outbreaks, introduced by European contact, decimated the Gros Ventre population, leaving a lasting scar on their society and cultural fabric. The loss of life and the disruption of traditional ways of life had a profound and lasting impact on the tribe.
1793: Conflict at South Branch House
In 1793, tensions between the Gros Ventre and European traders culminated in a violent attack on the Hudson Bay Trading post known as South Branch House. Driven by grievances and a desire to protect their territory and way of life, the Gros Ventre attacked the post, resulting in the deaths of most of the employees. This event underscored the growing friction between the tribe and the encroaching European presence.
1794: Retaliation and Intertribal Conflict
The conflict continued in 1794 with another Gros Ventre attack on a Hudson Bay Trading Post, the Manchester House. However, this time, the Gros Ventre faced retaliation from the Cree and Assiniboine, who were armed by the Hudson Bay trading posts. This marked the beginning of intertribal conflicts fueled by the fur trade and the competition for resources, further destabilizing the region.
1826: Encounters with Exploration
The year 1826 brought a different kind of encounter for the Gros Ventre, as they met German explorer and naturalist Prince Maximilian near the Missouri River in Montana. Accompanying Maximilian was the talented artist Karl Bodmer. Both men documented their interactions with the Gros Ventre through paintings and written accounts, providing valuable insights into the tribe’s culture, appearance, and way of life during this period.
1830 – 1832: A Separation of Paths
A significant event in the history of the Gros Ventre occurred between 1830 and 1832 when they separated from their linguistic relatives, the Arapaho. This separation stemmed from a disagreement that led to killings on both sides. Despite attempts to restore peace, the decision to separate was upheld, marking a divergence in their cultural and historical trajectories.
1832: Battle at Pierre’s Hole
In 1832, the Gros Ventre engaged in a fierce battle with trappers and Indians at Pierre’s Hole in Wyoming. This clash was part of the broader conflicts that arose from the competition for resources and control of territory in the fur trade era.
1843: Tragedy at Sweet Grass Hills
In 1843, a devastating event unfolded at the Sweet Grass Hills when Assiniboine and Cree warriors attacked a Gros Ventre encampment, resulting in the deaths of approximately four hundred Gros Ventre people. This tragic incident highlighted the ongoing intertribal conflicts and the vulnerability of communities in the face of warfare.
1837 – 1838: Smallpox Devastation Revisited
The Assiniboine, like many other tribes, suffered immensely during the smallpox epidemic of 1837-1838. This outbreak decimated their population, causing widespread death and social disruption. The epidemic left a lasting impact on the Assiniboine people, weakening their ability to resist encroachment and defend their way of life.
1851: Fort Laramie Treaty
The year 1851 saw the signing of the Fort Laramie Treaty, a significant agreement intended to establish peace and define territories among various tribes. The Assiniboine and Gros Ventre were among the signatories, along with the Cheyenne, Arapaho, Ogallala, Brule Sioux, Crow, Shoshone, Mandans, Arikaras, and Minnitarees. The treaty involved an attendance of around 10,000 Indians. Article 5 of the treaty specifically addressed the territories of the Gros Ventre and Assiniboine.
1853: Treaty Negotiations at Milk River
In 1853, treaty negotiations took place with the Gros Ventre at the Milk River, a region that served as their primary location at the time. The following year, the tribe, along with the Piegan, received one thousand dollars worth of food and annuities as part of the treaty provisions.
1855: Judith River Treaty / Lame Bull Treaty
The Judith River Treaty, also known as the Lame Bull Treaty, was signed in 1855. This agreement established common hunting grounds and granted the Assiniboine hunting privileges in common with the Blackfeet. The treaty aimed to regulate hunting practices and maintain peace between the tribes.
1866: Intertribal Conflict Rekindled
In 1866, a raiding party of Pend d’Oreille stole horses from the Gros Ventre. The Gros Ventre tracked the horses to a Piegan camp, mistakenly believing that the Piegans were responsible for the theft. In retaliation, the Gros Ventre attacked the camp, killing three people. This incident reignited conflicts between the two tribes, which persisted until the late 1870s.
1867: Fort Belknap Established
A pivotal moment in the history of the Assiniboine and Gros Ventre Tribes and Fort Belknap Reservation came in 1867 with the establishment of Fort Belknap on the south side of the Milk River. Named after the Secretary of War at the time, William W. Belknap, the fort served a dual purpose as a military post and a trading center. It also became the agency for the Gros Ventre and Assiniboine Indians in the area, marking the beginning of a new era of government oversight and control.
1873 and 1874: Executive Orders and Shifting Boundaries
President Grant issued a series of Executive Orders in 1873 and 1874 that significantly altered the territorial landscape for the Blackfeet, Gros Ventre, Assiniboine, and Sioux. The 1873 order established an undivided territory for these tribes, spanning lands north of the Missouri and Sun Rivers. The 1874 order shifted the southern boundary northward from the Sun River to the Marias River, further reshaping the tribal lands.
1875: Restoration of Lands
President Grant issued an Executive Order restoring some of the lands diminished by his prior orders.
1880: Land Taken Back
President Rutherford Hays took back the land that Grant had restored. This area included land around the Musselshell and Missouri River.
1884: Discovery of Gold
The discovery of gold in the Little Rockies on the reservation in 1884 triggered a rush of miners who staked claims, despite the fact that the gold was located on Indian land. This influx of prospectors led to conflicts and further pressure on tribal resources.
1887: St. Paul’s Mission Established
St. Paul’s Mission was established at the foot of the Little Rockies near Hays in 1887, providing religious and educational services to the local community.
1888: Sweetgrass Hills Agreement
The Sweetgrass Hills Agreement of 1888 formally established the Blackfeet, Fort Belknap, and Fort Peck Reservations, solidifying the boundaries of these tribal lands.
1888: Arrival of the Great Northern Railroad
The completion of the Great Northern Railroad in 1888, which crossed reservation lands, brought significant changes to the region. The railroad facilitated transportation and trade but also led to increased encroachment and resource exploitation.
1895: The Grinnell Treaty and Land Cession
In 1895, the tribes were pressured to sell a seven-mile-square piece of land in the Little Rockies where gold had been discovered. The sale, negotiated by a commission led by George Bird Grinnell, resulted in a payment of $360,000 to the tribes. This agreement, ratified in 1896 and sometimes referred to as the Grinnell Treaty, marked a further loss of tribal land and control over resources.
1908: Winters v. United States
The landmark US Supreme Court case Winters v. United States in 1908 was pivotal in determining reserved water rights for tribes. The Fort Belknap Tribes pursued the case after non-Indian settlers began diverting and using water from the Milk River, which formed their northern border. The court’s decision affirmed the tribes’ right to water necessary for their livelihood.
1909: Red Whip’s Stand
In 1909, a group of Gros Ventre warriors engaged a group of Crow and Lakota warriors south of the reservation. The site was named after Gros Ventre warrior, Red Whip, who killed twelve Lakota in the battle.
1924: Fort Belknap Allotment Plan
The Washington DC Bureau of Indian Affairs Office approved the Fort Belknap allotment plan in 1924. The government allotted 539,065 acres of land to 1,171 Indians enrolled at Fort Belknap. Tribal members received 40 acres of irrigable land and 320 acres of non-irrigable land. Lands not allotted on the Fort Belknap Reservation were not opened up to homesteading.
1933: Fort Peck Dam Project
As part of the New Deal program, the proposal to build Fort Peck Dam was authorized in 1933. This project resulted in tons of rock being hauled from Fort Belknap’s Snake Butte to the dam site. The tribes were initially offered 5 cents per ton for the rock but successfully negotiated for twenty-five cents a ton.
1934: Regional Indian Congress
A delegation of tribal members traveled to Rapid City, South Dakota, for the regional Indian Congress in 1934.
1935: Reorganization under the Indian Reorganization Act
The Fort Belknap Tribes organized under the Indian Reorganization Act in 1935 and adopted a Constitution and By-Laws, establishing a formal tribal government.
1937: Corporate Charter Ratified
The tribes ratified a corporate charter August 25.
1941 – 1945: World War II Service
During World War II, from 1941 to 1945, approximately 25,000 American Indians served in the military, including members of the Fort Belknap Tribes.
1974: Constitutional Amendment
The Fort Belknap Tribal Constitution was amended in 1974 to elect a council consisting of 12 representatives – six Gros Ventre and six Assiniboine.
1977: Mining Operations Begin
The Zortman and Landusky mines began operation on the land that the tribes had been pressured to sell in 1895. The mines extracted gold from low-grade ore by cyanide heap-leach process.
1984: Fort Belknap Community College
Fort Belknap Community College was chartered in 1984, providing higher education opportunities to tribal members and the surrounding community.
1992: Legal Action Against Mining
The Indian Law Resource Center represented the Fort Belknap Tribes in a case to shut the Zortman and Landusky mines down, citing degradation of the reservation’s water and air quality.
1994: Constitutional Amendment
The tribal constitution was amended. The Fort Belknap Community Council make up was changed to four representatives from three districts (two districts get one representative and one district gets two). These representatives serve two-year terms. The chair and vice-chair run for election as a team and must include one Assiniboine and one Gros Ventre. These positions are four-year terms. The council then appoints a secretary/treasurer.
1998: Mine Closure and Reclamation
Pegasus Gold Inc., operators of the Zortman and Landusky mines, declared bankruptcy in 1998. Over 30 million dollars were spent on reclamation of the Zortman and Landusky open pit mines. The money fell short and the Bureau of Land Management spent around another 12 million to reclaim the area. Cyanide mining was banned in Montana.
2002: Tribal Enrollment Changes
Tribal enrollment changed, with tribal blood quantum lowered from one-fourth degree to one-eighth degree. The historical narrative of the Assiniboine and Gros Ventre Tribes and Fort Belknap Reservation continues to evolve.
This timeline offers just a glimpse into the rich and complex history of the Assiniboine and Gros Ventre Tribes and Fort Belknap Reservation. It is a story of resilience, adaptation, and the enduring strength of cultural identity in the face of profound challenges. The Assiniboine and Gros Ventre Tribes and Fort Belknap Reservation stand as a testament to the power of community and the importance of preserving ancestral knowledge for future generations.