The Arapaho (also spelled Arrapahoe or Arapahoe) are an Indigenous people of North America, historically residing on the vast plains spanning present-day Colorado and Wyoming. Their story is interwoven with the landscape, the buffalo, and the complex history of interactions with other tribes and the encroaching United States government. The Arapaho maintained a close alliance with the Cheyenne Indians, sharing cultural practices and often standing together in times of conflict. They also held a looser affiliation with the Lakota and Dakota peoples, forming a network of relationships across the Great Plains.
The Arapaho language, known as Heenetiit, is a branch of the Algonquian language family. Its closest linguistic relative is the Gros Ventre language (Ahe/A’ananin), suggesting a shared ancestry. The Gros Ventre people are believed to have originated as an early offshoot of the Arapaho, further highlighting the intricate web of relationships among the Plains tribes.
By the mid-19th century, the expanding pressures of westward expansion and resource competition led to the division of the Arapaho into two distinct tribal entities: the Northern Arapaho and the Southern Arapaho. This split reflected geographical realities and differing strategies for survival in a rapidly changing world.
The Northern Arapaho, since 1878, have resided on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming, sharing this land with the Eastern Shoshone. They are federally recognized as the Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation, maintaining their tribal government and working to preserve their cultural heritage. The Southern Arapaho, on the other hand, live alongside the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma. Together, they are enrolled as members of the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes, a testament to their enduring alliance.
Origins and Early History
The ancestral Arapaho-speaking people (Heeteinono’eino’) trace their origins back to the western Great Lakes region, specifically the Red River Valley in what is now Manitoba and Minnesota. Archaeological and linguistic evidence suggests their presence in this area dates back approximately 3,000 years. This location places them within a broader Algonquian cultural sphere, characterized by distinct languages, social structures, and spiritual beliefs.
Driven westward by the expanding Ojibwe, who had gained access to firearms through their alliances with French traders, the early Arapaho, along with the Cheyenne (Hitesiino’), migrated onto the eastern Great Plains. This movement, occurring sometime before 1700, marked a significant shift in their way of life, transforming them from woodland dwellers to nomadic hunters of the open plains.
Life on the Plains
Upon encountering European-Americans in the early 1800s, the Arapaho occupied a vast territory stretching from northern New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Kansas in the south, northward into Wyoming and South Dakota. This extensive range reflected their nomadic lifestyle and their dependence on the migratory patterns of the buffalo.
The Arapaho were skilled buffalo hunters, their lives intricately connected to the herds that roamed the plains. They adopted a lifestyle similar to that of their allies, the Cheyenne, Sioux, and Gros Ventre, and their enemies, the Crow, Kiowa, and Comanche. They constructed tepees for shelter, easily transportable dwellings ideally suited for a nomadic existence. Skilled horsemen, they hunted buffalo on horseback, using bows and arrows and later firearms to secure their sustenance.
Their society was structured around kinship and communal living, with strong emphasis on bravery, generosity, and respect for elders. They developed intricate social and ceremonial practices, reflecting their deep spiritual connection to the land and the animals that sustained them.
Conflict and Treaties
The mid-19th century brought increasing conflict between the Arapaho and the United States government, driven by westward expansion, resource competition, and cultural misunderstandings. This period was marked by broken treaties, violent encounters, and the erosion of the Arapaho way of life.
One of the most horrific events in Arapaho history is the Sand Creek Massacre, which occurred in November 1864. A peaceful village of Cheyenne and Arapaho, under the protection of the U.S. government, was attacked by the Colorado militia led by Colonel John Chivington. Hundreds of unarmed men, women, and children were brutally murdered, sparking outrage and igniting decades of war between the Arapaho and Cheyenne and the United States.
The events at Sand Creek fueled the Colorado War, a series of conflicts between the tribes and the U.S. military in Colorado. Battles and skirmishes also took place elsewhere on the southern plains, including Kansas and Texas, often encompassed within the broader context of the Comanche Wars.
In an attempt to establish peace, the U.S. government offered the Medicine Lodge Treaty in October 1867 to the Arapaho, Cheyenne, Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apaches. This treaty allocated the Southern Arapaho a reservation with the Southern Cheyenne between the Arkansas and Cimarron rivers in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma). Chief Little Raven was among those who signed the treaty, hoping to secure a future for his people.
However, not all Arapaho bands agreed to the terms of the treaty. Those who refused to sign were labeled "hostile" and were relentlessly pursued by the U.S. Army and their Indian scouts. The Battle of Summit Springs in northernmost Colorado marked the last major engagement between the Arapaho and the U.S. military on the southern plains.
Following the Sand Creek Massacre, many Northern Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Lakota bands migrated to the remote Powder River country in Wyoming and southern Montana. Along their journey, they participated in the Battle of Mud Springs in the Nebraska Panhandle, engaging a force of U.S. soldiers. The conflict resulted in the capture of army horses and cattle by the allied tribes. An attempt by the army to retaliate led to the Battle of Rush Creek.
Hostilities in the Powder River area prompted Major General Grenville M. Dodge to launch the Powder River Expedition. The allied Indian forces skillfully evaded the soldiers, focusing on raiding their supplies. The Battle of the Tongue River was a key engagement, during which Brigadier General Patrick Edward Connor ordered Frank North and his Pawnee Scouts to locate an Arapaho camp led by Chief Black Bear. The attack resulted in significant Arapaho casualties, primarily women and children, as most of the warriors were away on a raid.
Undeterred by the attack, the Arapaho launched a counterattack, resulting in the Sawyers Fight.
Red Cloud’s War, fought between the U.S. military and the allied Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Northern Arapaho, raged from 1866 to 1868. This conflict was sparked by the influx of miners and settlers along the Bozeman Trail, a route that traversed the Powder River Country, the heart of Arapaho, Cheyenne, Lakota, and Dakota territory. The increased competition for resources along the trail fueled the conflict. The Fetterman Fight stands out as the most significant battle of Red Cloud’s War.
The Great Sioux War of 1876-77, also known as the Black Hills War or Great Cheyenne War, pitted the Lakota Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho alliance against the U.S. Army. This war erupted after the discovery of gold in the Black Hills, leading to an illegal influx of non-Indians onto land guaranteed to the tribes by the Treaty of Fort Laramie following their victory in Red Cloud’s War in 1868.
As in previous conflicts, the U.S. government recruited warriors from tribes hostile to the Arapaho-Cheyenne-Lakota-Dakota alliance to serve as Indian scouts, notably from the Crow, Arikara, and Shoshone. Unlike previous conflicts, the Great Sioux War ended in a victory for the United States.
The deliberate destruction of the bison herds, a government-supported policy aimed at forcing nomadic Plains Indians onto reservations, played a significant role in the outcome of the war. The resulting scarcity of resources and starvation led to the surrender of individual Indian bands and the end of the Great Sioux War.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn, fought on June 25–26, 1876, stands as a pivotal event in this conflict. Warriors from the Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes clashed with the U.S. Army’s 7th Cavalry Regiment. The U.S. Seventh Cavalry, including the Custer Battalion, a force of 700 men led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, suffered a severe defeat. Five of the Seventh Cavalry’s companies were annihilated. The total US casualty count, including scouts, was 268 dead including Custer and 55 injured.
Five Arapaho warriors were present at the Battle of the Little Bighorn: Yellow Eagle, Yellow Fly, Left Hand, and Water Man (all Northern Arapaho), and Well-Knowing One (Sage), also known as Green Grass (Southern Arapaho). Their presence was a matter of chance, as they were initially on a war party against the Shoshone.
In 1878, the Northern Arapaho agreed to relocate to the Wind River Reservation in central Wyoming, sharing the land with their traditional enemies, the Eastern Shoshone. This arrangement, intended to be temporary, became permanent, and they remain there to this day.
Treaties and Agreements
The history of the Arapaho is intertwined with a series of treaties and agreements with the United States government, often resulting in the loss of land and the disruption of their traditional way of life. Some of the key treaties include:
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1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie: Established boundaries for Arapaho lands, stretching from the Arkansas River to the North Platte River.
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1861 Treaty With The Arapaho And Cheyenne: This treaty significantly reduced the land allotted to the tribes.
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Treaty With The Apache, Cheyenne, And Arapaho, 1865
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Treaty With The Cheyenne And Arapaho, 1865
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1865 Treaty With The Cheyenne And Arapaho (Medicine Lodge Treaty): Established a reservation for the Southern Arapaho and Cheyenne in Indian Territory (Oklahoma).
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1868 Treaty With The Northern Cheyenne And Northern Arapaho
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1868 Treaty With The Sioux: This treaty also included the Arapaho, further defining their relationship with the U.S. government.
Modern Day
Today, the Arapaho people continue to strive to preserve their cultural heritage, language, and traditions. The Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation and the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma work to improve the lives of their members and to advocate for their rights.
Their story is a testament to resilience, adaptability, and the enduring spirit of the Indigenous peoples of North America. The story of Arapaho stands as a reminder of the complex and often tragic history of the American West, and the importance of honoring the treaties and agreements made with Native American tribes.