The complex relationship between the Apache people and the United States government is etched in a series of treaties and executive orders spanning the mid-19th century. These agreements, often born out of conflict and shifting power dynamics, aimed to define territories, establish peace, and manage the interactions between the burgeoning nation and the diverse Apache bands. While treaties are often viewed as formal agreements, the history surrounding them reveals a narrative of broken promises, forced removals, and the enduring resilience of the Apache people. Between 1852 and 1867, the Apache signed six distinct treaties with the United States. Furthermore, the Apache tribes were subject to fourteen Executive Orders, unilaterally issued by the U.S. government.
The Landscape of Treaties: Promises and Realities
Treaties served as legal instruments, at least in theory, to define the boundaries between Apache lands and those claimed by the United States. They often stipulated provisions for peace, trade, and the provision of resources to the tribes in exchange for land concessions. However, the application of these treaties was fraught with challenges.
One significant example is the Medicine Lodge Treaty, actually a set of three treaties signed near Medicine Lodge Creek in Kansas in 1867. These treaties, while primarily involving the Kiowa, Comanche, and Plains Apache, illustrate the broader context of treaty-making during this period. The Kiowa and Comanche were pressured to cede over 60,000 square miles of their ancestral territories. In return, they were promised a 3-million-acre reservation in the southwestern corner of Indian Territory, which is now part of Oklahoma. The reservation was largely situated between the North Fork of the Red River and the North Canadian River.
Beyond land, the treaties included provisions for material assistance. The U.S. government pledged to provide the tribes with houses, barns, and schools, valued at $30,000. Ironically, this specific provision was not requested by the tribes themselves, highlighting the paternalistic approach often adopted by the U.S. government in its dealings with Native American nations.
A second treaty incorporated the Plains Apache into the Medicine Lodge agreement. This treaty was signed by the same Kiowa and Comanche signatories as the first, along with several Plains Apache chiefs, solidifying the agreement across multiple tribal groups. These treaties were all finalized on October 21, 1867.
These Apache treaties, like many others during this era, were intended to establish a framework for peaceful coexistence, but were often undermined by westward expansion, resource exploitation, and a fundamental clash of cultures. The very concept of land ownership, central to the American perspective, differed drastically from the Apache understanding of their relationship to the land.
The Bitter Reality of Forced Removal
The consequences of broken treaties and shifting policies manifested most tragically in forced removals. In 1875, a particularly devastating event saw the U.S. military forcibly relocate approximately 1500 Yavapai and Dilzhe’e Apache, often referred to as the Tonto Apache, from the Rio Verde Indian Reserve. This reserve encompassed thousands of acres of land that had been guaranteed to them by treaty with the U.S. government.
The removal was carried out under the orders of Indian Commissioner L.E. Dudley. U.S. Army troops compelled the Apache people, regardless of age or physical condition, to undertake a grueling 180-mile march (290 km) to the Indian Agency at San Carlos. This forced trek led them through winter-flooded rivers, treacherous mountain passes, and narrow canyon trails.
The journey was devastating. Hundreds of lives were lost due to exposure, starvation, and exhaustion. Upon arrival at San Carlos, the survivors were subjected to internment for a staggering 25 years. During this period, white settlers seized their ancestral lands. When the survivors were finally allowed to return, only a fraction of their original number remained.
The Rio Verde removal stands as a stark example of the human cost of broken treaties and the systematic dispossession of Native American peoples. It illustrates the vast gap between the promises made in formal agreements and the brutal reality faced by the Apache people.
The Enduring Image: Geronimo and the Final Surrender
The figure of Geronimo, a prominent leader of the Chiricahua Apache, has become synonymous with Apache resistance. Many historical accounts portray his surrender in 1886 as the final defeat of the Apache. After years of evading capture, relentlessly pursued by the U.S. Army, Geronimo, along with a small band of 30 to 50 men, women, and children, finally surrendered on September 4, 1886, at Skeleton Canyon, Arizona. It took an estimated 5,000 U.S. troops to bring about this surrender.
However, the story doesn’t end with Geronimo’s surrender. The U.S. Army sent Geronimo’s band, along with the Chiricahua scouts who had aided in their capture, to military confinement in Florida at Fort Pickens, and later to Fort Sill, Oklahoma. This decision to incarcerate not only the warriors but also their families and even those who had collaborated with the U.S. military underscores the harsh and indiscriminate nature of the government’s policy towards the Apache.
The surrender at Skeleton Canyon, while marking a significant turning point, does not represent the complete end of Apache resistance or the resolution of the complex issues surrounding treaties and land rights. The legacy of these events continues to resonate within Apache communities today.
Beyond Treaties: Assimilation and Cultural Loss
Beyond the formal treaties and military campaigns, the U.S. government pursued a policy of assimilation aimed at dismantling Apache culture and integrating individuals into mainstream American society. This policy manifested in various ways, including the establishment of boarding schools where Apache children were forcibly removed from their families and communities.
In these schools, children were forbidden to speak their native languages, practice their traditional customs, or maintain contact with their families. The goal was to eradicate their cultural identity and replace it with American values and beliefs. In the post-war era, the U.S. government even arranged for Apache children to be taken from their families and adopted by white American families as part of these assimilation programs.
These assimilation policies inflicted deep wounds on Apache communities, disrupting family structures, eroding cultural knowledge, and contributing to a sense of alienation and loss. The long-term effects of these policies are still felt today.
The Legacy of Treaties and Executive Orders
The history of Apache Treaties and Executive Orders is a complex and often painful one. While treaties were intended to establish a framework for peaceful coexistence and define land rights, they were frequently violated, leading to conflict, forced removals, and cultural disruption.
The Executive Orders issued after 1871 further eroded Apache sovereignty and control over their lands and resources. These orders, enacted without tribal consent, often redefined reservation boundaries, altered land use policies, and imposed restrictions on Apache self-governance.
Despite the challenges and injustices they have faced, the Apache people have demonstrated remarkable resilience. Today, several federally recognized Apache tribes continue to thrive, working to preserve their cultural heritage, assert their sovereign rights, and address the ongoing effects of historical trauma.
Further Exploration
For those interested in learning more about the history of the Apache and their relationship with the U.S. government, a wealth of resources is available. These include historical documents, scholarly articles, tribal archives, and oral histories. By engaging with these resources, we can gain a deeper understanding of the complexities of this history and the enduring legacy of the Apache Treaties.