The Algonquian language family, a name derived from the Algonkin tribe, represents a significant linguistic group that once spanned a vast territory across North America. Their dominion extended from the eastern shores of Newfoundland to the formidable Rocky Mountains, encompassing a diverse range of tribes and bands. The very name, Algonquian Bands and Clans, evokes images of interconnected communities and a rich tapestry of cultures woven across the continent.
Early Movement and Tribal Affiliations
The Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes, for instance, embarked on a westward migration, separating from the main body of Algonquian peoples and venturing onto the Great Plains. While scholars generally agree on the composition of the Algonquian family, detailed information regarding the numerous dialects remains limited, hindering a definitive linguistic classification.
A significant challenge in understanding the history of Algonquian Bands and Clans lies in the ambiguity surrounding the organizational structures of these groups. Early European observers often struggled to differentiate between confederacies, tribes, bands, and clans. This confusion was particularly prevalent when dealing with groups that had become extinct or were difficult to identify. Explorers and settlers frequently mistook settlements or bands belonging to the same tribe as distinct entities, bestowing upon individual villages, settlements, or bands the titles of "tribe" or "nation," often named after the locality or the presiding chief.
This problem was particularly acute in New England and along the Atlantic coast, where indigenous populations were often organized into small, localized communities. These communities typically derived their names from the principal village or a nearby geographical feature, such as a stream or prominent landmark. Whether these communities were subordinate to a larger tribal authority or operated as independent, yet interconnected, entities remains a subject of debate. The existence of true tribal organization among the better-known Algonquian branches suggests that a similar structure likely prevailed more broadly.
Classification of the Algonquian Tribes
The Algonquian Bands and Clans can be broadly categorized into several geographic divisions:
- Western Division: These tribes inhabited the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains.
- Northern Division: This division encompassed a vast area stretching from the northwesternmost reaches of Algonquian territory to the easternmost regions, north of the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes.
- Northeastern Division: These tribes resided in eastern Quebec, the Maritime provinces, and eastern Maine.
- Central Division: This group occupied the region encompassing Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio.
- Eastern Division: This division comprised all Algonquian tribes living along the Atlantic coast south of the Abenaki, including various confederacies and groups.
The names of specific tribes within each division are numerous and varied, reflecting the diversity of the Algonquian peoples.
Contact with Europeans: A Turning Point
The arrival of European settlers marked a pivotal moment in the history of Algonquian Bands and Clans. The eastern Algonquians were among the first indigenous peoples north of the Gulf of Mexico to experience the profound and often devastating consequences of European contact.
The relationship between the French and the Algonquian tribes was generally amicable, with the notable exception of the Fox tribe, against whom the French waged war. In contrast, the English settlements frequently engaged in border conflicts with their Algonquian neighbors. The relentless westward expansion of the English colonies pushed the Algonquian populations further inland.
The eastern tribes, stretching from Maine to Carolina, faced defeat, and their traditional tribal structures were shattered. Some sought refuge in Canada, while others crossed the mountains into the Ohio Valley. A few bands were confined to reservations by the European settlers, but these communities dwindled and eventually disappeared.
Many of the smaller tribes of New England, Virginia, and other eastern states no longer have living representatives. The languages of some are known only through fragments recorded by early historians, while others are known solely by name.
Those Abenaki and other tribes who fled to Canada settled along the St. Lawrence River under French protection, becoming staunch allies in subsequent conflicts with the English, a partnership that endured until the fall of French power in Canada.
The tribes that migrated across the Allegheny Mountains into the Ohio Valley, along with the Wyandot and the native Algonquian tribes of that region, formed a loose confederacy. They initially allied with the French and later with the English, aiming to preserve the Ohio River as the boundary between indigenous and European territories. However, Wayne’s victory in 1794 led to the Treaty of Greenville in 1795, where the tribes acknowledged their defeat and ceded land west of the Ohio River.
Tecumseh and his brother, Tenskwatawa, later rallied the western tribes against the United States, but the defeat at Tippecanoe in 1811 and Tecumseh’s death effectively extinguished the resistance.
In 1815, those tribes that had fought against the United States during the War of 1812 made peace with the government. This marked the beginning of a series of treaties that, within three decades, resulted in the cession of most of their lands and their forced removal west of the Mississippi River.
The Iroquois Confederacy: A Powerful Adversary
A significant factor in the decline of the Algonquian ascendancy was the rise of the Iroquois Confederacy. By the early 17th century, the Iroquois had become a formidable power, posing a threat to indigenous populations from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and from the Ottawa River in Canada to the Tennessee River.
After decimating the Huron and Erie tribes, the Iroquois turned their attention to the Algonquian tribes. Ohio and Indiana were largely deserted, with only a few Miami villages remaining in the northern regions. The Iroquois created a vast buffer zone, depopulating the land within 500 miles of their territory. Algonquian tribes fled to the upper Great Lakes and the banks of the Mississippi River, only returning east when the French guaranteed protection against the Iroquois.
Physical Characteristics of the Algonquian Peoples
Early historical accounts describe the central Algonquians as averaging around 5 feet 7 inches in height, considered tall for the period when they first encountered Europeans. They possessed the characteristic "Indian nose," prominent and often hooked in men, flatter in women, along with pronounced cheekbones. The tribes around the Great Lakes exhibited large, almost brachycephalic (round-headed) skulls with considerable variation, and broad faces.
Due to the lack of surviving full-blooded individuals, the physical type of the Atlantic coast Algonquians is more difficult to ascertain. However, skulls discovered in old burial grounds indicate that they were tall, with less broad faces and elongated, high skulls, resembling those of the Inuit, suggesting potential intermingling.
The Cheyenne and Arapaho were even taller than the central Algonquians, with larger faces and more elongated heads. Interestingly, the region where the remains of mound builders are found exhibits a prevalence of rounded heads, potentially indicating a fusion of blood.
Religious Beliefs and Spiritual Practices
The religious beliefs of the eastern Algonquian tribes shared common threads. Their mythology was rich and diverse, with numerous deities, or "manitus," encompassing both animate and inanimate objects. The central figure in their pantheon was a culture hero responsible for the creation and control of the world. While known by various names among different tribes, his character remained consistent.
Among the Chippewa and related tribes, this figure was known as Manibozho or Michabo, often associated with a great rabbit and linked to the sun. This association with the great rabbit appears to have been widespread, extending as far south as Maryland.
Brinton (Hero Myths, 1882) theorized that this mythological animal was merely a symbol of light, chosen due to the similarity between the Algonquian words for rabbit and light.
The Siksika knew this deity as Napiw, the Abenaki as Ketchiniwesk, and the New England tribes as Kiehtan, Woonand, Cautantowit, etc. He was credited with creating the world through magic, populating it with game animals, teaching his people hunting skills, and providing them with corn and beans.
This deity was known more for his magical abilities and cunning than for benevolent qualities. Natural objects, such as the sun, moon, fire, trees, lakes, and animals, were also considered deities. Respect was also given to the four cardinal directions.
A widespread belief existed in a soul, shade, or immortal spiritual essence not only in humans but also in animals and other entities. This soul was believed to journey to a spiritual realm after death, where occupations and enjoyments mirrored those of earthly life.
Priests or conjurers, often referred to as "medicine-men" by Europeans, played vital roles in the social, political, and religious systems. They were believed to possess influence over spirits or other forces, which they could harness to predict the future, inflict or cure diseases, and more.
Social Structures: Matrilineal and Patrilineal Descent
The social structures of Algonquian Bands and Clans varied across different groups. Among the tribes from southern New England to Carolina, including the Mohegan, Delawares, the people of the Powhatan confederacy, and the Chippewa, descent was traced through the female line (matrilineal).
Conversely, among the Potawatomi, Abenaki, Blackfeet, and likely most of the northern tribes, descent was traced through the male line (patrilineal). In more recent times, paternal descent has also been observed among the Menominee, Sauk and Fox, Illinois, Kickapoo, and Shawnee. While some claim that maternal descent was historically practiced, there is no conclusive evidence to support this assertion.
Clans, Gens, and Political Organization
The Cree, Arapaho, and Cheyenne lacked clans or gentes (descent groups).
The gens or clan was typically governed by a chief, sometimes appointed by the heads of other clans or gentes.
The tribe also had its chief, typically chosen from a specific clan or gens, though the selection process and authority varied among tribes.
There was a "peace chief" whose authority was not absolute and who had no role in declaring or conducting war. The war leader was someone who had earned the position through notable deeds and skill.
In some tribes, the title of chief was hereditary, and the distinction between peace and war chiefs was not observed. The chief’s power varied among tribes, with greater authority among the Miami, for example.
Government was directed in important matters by a council composed of the chiefs of the tribe’s clans or gentes. This council held the authority to declare war, make peace, sell territory, and more.
Subsistence: A Sedentary Lifestyle
The Algonquian tribes were primarily sedentary and agricultural, with the exception of those in the colder regions of Canada and the Siksika of the plains.
The Chippewa did not traditionally cultivate the soil.
Maize was a staple food, but tribes in the Great Lakes region, particularly the Menominee, relied heavily on wild rice.
The Powhatan tribes produced enough maize to supply their needs and those of the Virginia colonists for several years after the founding of Jamestown. The New England colonists were also frequently sustained by corn grown by the native peoples.
In 1792, Wayne’s army encountered a continuous plantation stretching along the entire length of the Maumee River from Fort Wayne to Lake Erie.
While relying primarily on hunting and fishing, the New England tribes cultivated maize, beans, pumpkins, and tobacco in significant quantities. They understood the benefits of fertilization, using fish, shells, and ashes for this purpose.
Their tools for preparing the ground and cultivating crops typically consisted of wooden spades or hoes, the latter made by attaching a shell, an animal’s shoulder blade, or a tortoise shell to a stick as a handle. The Europeans learned to make hominy, succotash, samp, maple sugar, and johnnycake from the Algonquian tribes.
Material Culture: Clothing, Housing, and Transportation
Algonquian clothing was primarily made from tanned animal skins, often decorated with paint and shell beads. Feather mantles were also used.
Women typically wore a fringed leather shirt or undergarment and a skirt of the same material, fastened with a belt. Leggings and moccasins protected their legs and feet.
Men wore a breechcloth and often a skin mantle.
Women wore their hair in a thick plait and sometimes adorned their heads with wampum bands or small caps.
Men wore their hair in various styles, often shaving one side or leaving a strip from forehead to nape.
The typical Algonquian lodge was oval or conical, constructed from birch bark sheets.
The Mohegan and Virginia Indians built long communal houses accommodating multiple families. Northern dwellings were sometimes made of logs, while those in the South and West were constructed of saplings covered with matting.
The Delaware preferred smaller, separate dwellings, using bark peeled from trees.
Villages, especially along the Atlantic coast, were frequently surrounded by stockades.
Canoes, used for fishing, were made of birch bark or from the trunk of a large tree.
Interior tribes of Illinois and Wisconsin traveled mostly on foot, while those along the Great Lakes and Atlantic coast were skilled canoeists.
Pottery was manufactured to varying degrees among the tribes, with the Shawnee being particularly prolific.
Funeral Practices
The typical burial method involved graves, with each clan or gens having its own cemetery. Mortuary ceremonies included dressing the deceased in their finest clothing, placing them on a mat, and surrounding them with personal effects. Female relatives and friends mourned the body. The grave was lined with bark, and the body was covered with bark and earth. Personal belongings, food, and cooking utensils were sometimes placed in the grave. Fires were lit on the grave for four nights after burial. Tree or scaffold burial was practiced by some tribes.
Alliances and Leadership
While brave and intelligent, the eastern Algonquian tribes lacked the cohesion and organizational skills of the Iroquois. Their alliances were temporary, hindering their ability to unite against a common enemy. Despite the efforts of leaders like Philip, Pontiac, and Tecumseh, efforts to unite the tribes against the white settlers ultimately failed. The Virginia tribes, under Powhatan and Opechancanough, offered a united resistance for years.
Population
The current Algonquian population is approximately 90,000, with about 40,000 in the United States and 50,000 in Canada. The largest tribes are the Chippewa and the Cree. The history of the Algonquian Bands and Clans is a testament to their resilience, adaptability, and cultural richness, even in the face of immense challenges and adversity.