Alaska Northwest Coast Cultures

The Alaska Northwest Coast Cultures represent a rich tapestry of traditions, languages, and social structures shared by the Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian peoples. While these groups possess distinct identities and linguistic variations, anthropologists recognize them as belonging to a broader "Northwest Coast Culture" area. This cultural zone encompasses the indigenous communities inhabiting the Pacific coast from the Copper River Delta in Alaska southwards towards northern Oregon. This article explores the defining characteristics of these Alaska Northwest Coast Cultures, focusing on their social systems, languages, settlement patterns, technology, subsistence, and ceremonial practices.

A Shared Cultural Heritage:

The term "Northwest Coast Culture" acknowledges the significant similarities in the lifeways of these groups, shaped by the abundant resources of the temperate rainforest environment. The Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian relied heavily on the ocean and rivers for sustenance, transportation, and trade. The availability of salmon, halibut, seals, and other marine life profoundly influenced their economies and social organization. The towering cedar, spruce, and hemlock forests provided the raw materials for constructing homes, canoes, tools, and ceremonial objects. Despite this shared dependence on the environment, each group developed its own unique cultural expressions.

Social Complexity: Moieties, Phratries, and Clans

A hallmark of the Alaska Northwest Coast Cultures is their intricate social organization, characterized by moieties, phratries, and clans. These systems dictated kinship relationships, inheritance rights, and social responsibilities. The Eyak, Tlingit, and Haida organized themselves into moieties, which are essentially two reciprocal halves that divide the community. The Eyak recognized the Raven and Eagle moieties, mirroring the Tlingit’s Raven/Crow and Eagle/Wolf divisions. The Haida also followed an Eagle/Raven moiety system.

The Tsimshian, in contrast, structured their society around phratries, consisting of four distinct groups. These phratries were associated with prominent crests, such as Killerwhale (Blackfish), Wolf, Raven, and Eagle. Among the Gitksan, a subgroup of the Tsimshian, the phratry names were Fireweed, Wolf, Raven, and Eagle. These divisions influenced marriage patterns, ceremonial roles, and access to resources. Clans, nested within moieties or phratries, further defined social identity and inheritance. These were matrilineal, meaning that lineage and inheritance passed through the mother’s side, granting children rights to clan lands, crests, and ceremonial privileges.

Linguistic Diversity:

Despite their geographical proximity and shared cultural traits, the Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian languages are not mutually intelligible. This linguistic diversity underscores the unique history and cultural development of each group.

• Eyak: The Eyak language is a linguistic isolate, meaning it is not demonstrably related to any other known language family. Tragically, it is critically endangered, with only one known living speaker.

• Tlingit: The Tlingit language encompasses four main dialects: Northern, Southern, Inland, and Gulf Coast. Each village exhibits variations in accent, reflecting the localized nature of linguistic development.

• Haida: Haida is another isolate language, spoken in three dialects: Skidegate and Masset in British Columbia, Canada, and the Kaigani dialect in Alaska.

• Tsimshian: The Tsimshian language, known as Sm’algyax, also stands as an isolate. It comprises four primary dialects: Coast Tsimshian, Southern Tsimshian, Nisga’a, and Gitksan.

Territorial Boundaries and Historical Migrations:

Each group occupied distinct territories within the Alaska Northwest Coast region, shaped by migrations and historical interactions.

• Eyak: The Eyak inhabited the southeastern corner of Southcentral Alaska, extending along the Gulf of Alaska from the Copper River Delta to Icy Bay. Oral traditions suggest their ancestors migrated from the interior of Alaska via the Copper River or the Bering Glacier. Historically, the Eyak maintained closer ties with their Athabascan neighbors to the north than with other Northwest Coast Cultures until the 18th century.

• Tlingit: The Tlingit traditionally occupied the Southeast Panhandle of Alaska, stretching from Icy Bay in the north to the Dixon Entrance in the south. Their territory also extended eastwards into Canada, where the "Inland Tlingit" reside. The Tlingit have inhabited this region for millennia, with some scientific estimates placing their presence at 10,000 years, while Tlingit oral history asserts their presence "since time immemorial."

• Haida: The Haida originated in the Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwaii) in British Columbia, Canada. Prior to European contact, a group migrated north to the Prince of Wales Island area in Alaska, becoming known as the "Kaigani" or Alaska Haida. Today, the Kaigani Haida primarily reside in the villages of Kasaan and Hydaburg.

• Tsimshian: The Tsimshian’s ancestral homeland lies between the Nass and Skeena Rivers in British Columbia, Canada. Upon European contact, Tsimshian villages existed in the Portland Canal area of Southeast Alaska, including Hyder and Halibut Bay. Currently, the Tsimshian in Alaska predominantly live on Annette Island, in the community of New Metlakatla.

Settlement Patterns and Architectural Adaptations:

The Alaska Northwest Coast Cultures developed unique settlement patterns and architectural styles suited to the temperate rainforest environment.

• House Types: Before and during early contact, houses were constructed from red cedar, spruce, and hemlock timbers and planks. These dwellings, roofed with cedar bark or spruce shingles, varied in size, ranging from 35-40 feet by 50-100 feet, with some Haida houses reaching 100 feet by 75 feet. A central fire pit with a smoke hole was a standard feature, with a plank shield framing the smoke hole in the roof. Each house could accommodate 20-50 individuals, with village populations ranging from 300 to 500 people.

• Village Locations: Winter villages were strategically located along streams or saltwater beaches, providing easy access to fish resources, protection from storms and enemies, fresh water, and canoe landing sites. Houses typically faced the water, with their backs to the mountains or muskeg/swamps. Most villages consisted of a single row of houses facing the water, although some had multiple rows.

Each local group of Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian maintained at least one permanent winter village, along with seasonal camps near food resources. Houses generally housed 20-50 people, usually belonging to a single clan. Eyak villages featured two potlatch houses, marked by a post topped with an Eagle or Raven. The southern Tlingit adorned the fronts of their houses with tall totem poles, while the northern Tlingit houses had fewer and shorter frontal poles.

Tools, Technology, and Resource Management:

The temperate rainforest environment profoundly influenced the tools, technology, and resource management practices of the Alaska Northwest Coast Cultures.

• Woodworking: Wood was a vital resource, used for houses, totem poles, utensils, storage boxes, canoes, ceremonial objects, and even clothing. Adzes, mauls, wedges, and digging sticks were essential woodworking tools. Before metal became available through trade, chipped rocks, bones, beaver teeth, and shells were used for cutting wood.

• Lighting: The Eyak used clamshells filled with seal oil or pitch and a lump of fat for a wick for lighting. Dried ooligan (eulachon) were also used as candles.

• Fishing Technology: Sophisticated fishing techniques were employed to harvest seasonal salmon runs. Fish weirs (fences) and traps were placed in streams, and holding ponds were built in the intertidal region. Dip nets, hooks, harpoons, and spears were also used. Specialized "V" or "U"-shaped hooks were designed for catching specific sizes of halibut.

• Basketry: Various baskets were used for cooking, storage, and gathering clams, berries, seaweed, and water. The Tsimshian used baskets in the process of making ooligan oil. Basket weaving techniques were also applied to create mats, aprons, and hats. Cedar bark mats served as room dividers, floor coverings, and wrappings for the deceased. The inner cedar bark was pounded to create baby cradle padding and clothing such as capes, skirts, shorts, and blankets (shawls). The Nass River Tsimshian are credited with originating the Chilkat weaving technique, which later spread throughout the region.

Social and Political Organization:

The Alaska Northwest Coast Cultures lacked a centralized government. Instead, each village and clan house resolved disputes through traditional customs and practices. Decisions were made at the clan, village, or house level, affecting the respective members. Society was highly stratified, consisting of high-ranking individuals/families, commoners, and slaves. Marriages were arranged by family members, and slaves were typically captives taken during war raids on other villages.

Clothing and Adornment:

The Alaska Northwest Coast Cultures utilized animal fur, mountain goat wool, tanned skins, and cedar bark for clothing. Spruce root and cedar bark hats protected against rain. After contact with Western traders, wool and cotton materials became common. High-status women wore labrets, lip or cheek ornaments, as a sign of their social standing.

Transportation and Trade:

Canoes were the primary means of transportation, facilitating travel for subsistence activities and trade. The Haida canoes, crafted from single cedar logs up to 60 feet in length, were particularly prized for their craftsmanship and seaworthiness.

Subsistence Patterns: A Seasonal Cycle of Abundance:

The Alaska Northwest Coast Cultures relied on a diverse range of resources, following a seasonal cycle of harvesting and preservation.

• Aquatic Resources: Salmon was a staple food, with five species (King, silver, red, chum, and pink) providing essential nutrition. Other important fish included steelhead, herring, and ooligans. A variety of sea mammals and deepwater fish also contributed to the diet.

• Plant Resources: Seaweed (black, red), beach asparagus, and goose tongue were among the edible sea plants. Berries and shoots were gathered from the forests.

• Land Mammals: Moose, mountain goat, and deer provided meat and hides.

Clans traditionally owned salmon streams, halibut banks, berry patches, hunting grounds, intertidal regions, and egg harvesting areas. As long as the area was used by the clan, their ownership was recognized. The seasonal nature of food resources necessitated preservation techniques such as smoking in smokehouses or drying by wind or sun.

Ceremonies and Regalia:

The Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian are renowned for their elaborate ceremonies, particularly the "potlatch" and feasts. Potlatches were formal ceremonies, while feasts were less formal but similar events, especially common among the Haida.

• Potlatch Events: High-ranking clans and individuals were expected to host potlatches, although commoners could also elevate their status by giving one. Potlatches were held to honor the dead, validate debts, name individuals, celebrate the completion of a new house, dedicate clan regalia, commemorate weddings, name children, erect totem poles, or remove shame. Potlatches could last for days and included feasting, speeches, singing, and dancing. Guests witnessed and validated the events and received gifts during the ceremony.

• Regalia: Regalia worn at potlatches included Chilkat and Raven’s Tail woven robes, painted tanned leather clothing, tunics, leggings, moccasins, ground squirrel robes, red cedar ropes, masks, rattles, and frontlets. Drums, rattles, whistles, paddles, and staffs were also used. Only clan regalia named and validated at a potlatch could be used for formal gatherings. Chilkat robes were made of mountain goat wool and cedar warps, and the Chilkat weaving style is unique in its ability to create perfect circles. After contact, robes were made of blankets adorned with glass beads, mother-of-pearl shells, dentalium, and abalone shells.

Contemporary Relevance:

Today, traditional subsistence activities and ceremonies remain essential to the cultural identity of the Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian peoples. The Alaska Northwest Coast Cultures continue to thrive, adapting to modern challenges while preserving their rich heritage.