This comprehensive single-volume work, The Reader’s Companion to American History, stands as a monumental achievement in historical scholarship. Spanning over 1200 pages, it offers a richly detailed and engaging exploration of the American story, from the pre-Columbian era to the complex social and political landscape of the 1990s. Edited by the esteemed historians John A. Garraty and Eric Foner, this encyclopedia seamlessly blends concise, descriptive entries with in-depth analytical essays, making it an invaluable resource for students, scholars, and anyone with a keen interest in understanding the multifaceted history of the United States.
The scope of The Reader’s Companion to American History is remarkably broad, encompassing not only the major political events and figures that have shaped the nation, but also the economic forces, cultural movements, and social transformations that have defined American identity. From the rise and fall of political parties to the evolution of American literature and art, from the struggles for civil rights to the changing demographics of the population, this volume provides a panoramic view of the American experience. Its strength lies in its ability to connect seemingly disparate events and trends, revealing the underlying currents that have shaped the nation’s trajectory.
One particularly compelling aspect of the The Reader’s Companion to American History is its thorough examination of the conflicts between European settlers and the Indigenous peoples of North America. These encounters, often characterized by violence, displacement, and cultural clashes, represent a crucial, yet often overlooked, chapter in American history. The book delves into the complexities of these interactions, providing a nuanced perspective that acknowledges the perspectives of both sides.
American Indian Wars: A Legacy of Conflict
The narrative unfolds with the initial encounters between Europeans and Indigenous populations in the 17th century. The early years of colonization were punctuated by frequent skirmishes and large-scale conflicts. In 1622, the Powhatan Confederacy, a powerful alliance of tribes in present-day Virginia, launched a devastating attack on the Jamestown colony, nearly obliterating the fledgling settlement. This event highlighted the vulnerability of the colonists and the ever-present threat posed by the Indigenous peoples who saw their lands and way of life being encroached upon. Later, Nathaniel Bacon, driven by frustration with the colonial government’s perceived leniency towards Native Americans, led a group of vigilantes in a campaign of violence against the Pamunkey Indians in 1676, further escalating tensions. Similar conflicts erupted in the Dutch colonies of New York, demonstrating the widespread nature of these early encounters.
King Philip’s War: A Turning Point in New England
In New England, the Puritan colonists engaged in a brutal campaign against the Pequot tribe in 1636-1637, effectively annihilating them. This act of extreme violence foreshadowed the future course of relations between the colonists and the Native Americans. In 1675, Metacom, known to the English as King Philip, led a series of coordinated attacks against English settlements, sparking King Philip’s War. The New England Confederation, a military alliance of the colonies, responded with overwhelming force, employing Indian auxiliaries and a scorched-earth policy. The Narragansett, Wampanoag, and Nipmuck tribes were decimated in the ensuing conflict, marking a significant turning point in the struggle for control of New England.
The Pueblo Revolt: Resistance in the Southwest
Further west, in Spanish-held New Mexico, the Pueblo Indians launched a major revolt in 1680, driving out the Spanish colonists and reclaiming their ancestral lands. This successful uprising demonstrated the resilience and determination of the Indigenous peoples to resist European domination.
Imperial Rivalries and Indian Alliances
The conflicts between European powers – France, Spain, and England – further complicated the situation. Each power sought to enlist the support of various Indian tribes in their struggles for control of North America. During King William’s War (1689-1697), Queen Anne’s War (1702-1713), and King George’s War (1744-1748), the French allied with the Abenaki and Mohawk tribes to raid English settlements. Conversely, the English forged alliances with the Chickasaw and Cherokee tribes to counter French influence in the Mississippi River valley and Spanish presence in western Florida. The French and Indian War (1754-1763), a pivotal conflict in North American history, saw the French and their Indian allies initially gaining the upper hand, inflicting heavy losses on British forces. However, under the leadership of British minister William Pitt, the British eventually prevailed, capturing Canada and effectively ending French power in North America.
Beyond the European wars, colonists in Virginia and the Carolinas continued to push westward, displacing the Tuscarora, Yamasee, and Cherokee tribes. The Natchez, Chickasaw, and Fox Indians resisted French domination, while the Apache and Comanche fought against Spanish expansion into Texas.
Pontiac’s Rebellion and the American Revolution
In 1763, Ottawa Chief Pontiac united various tribes in the Old Northwest in a rebellion against British expansion. Although his raids caused significant damage, the British victory in the French and Indian War and the Proclamation of 1763, which forbade settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, ultimately undermined his support.
During the American Revolution, many Northern tribes, particularly those influenced by Mohawk Chief Joseph Brant, sided with the British Crown. They participated in unsuccessful offensives in upstate New York in 1777, and the conflict spread to the Wyoming and Cherry valleys, resulting in brutal fighting. American forces eventually retaliated, devastating Iroquois territory. In the Midwest, George Rogers Clark captured Vincennes for the Americans, but British agents continued to sponsor Indian raids as far south as Kentucky.
The Treaty of Paris in 1783, which officially recognized the United States, set the nation’s boundaries at the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes, virtually guaranteeing future conflicts with the tribes residing in those territories.
The Northwest Indian War and Tecumseh’s Confederacy
In the early years of the United States, the Northwest Indian War saw Miami Chief Little Turtle inflict defeats on American forces in 1790 and 1791. However, in 1794, Anthony Wayne secured a decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.
Despite this victory, resistance to white expansion persisted. Shawnee Chief Tecumseh formed a large Indian confederation based at Prophetstown. While Tecumseh was away seeking support, William Henry Harrison burned the village after the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811.
The War of 1812 and the Creek War
Indian raids, often encouraged by the British, contributed to the United States’ decision to declare war on Great Britain in 1812. Tecumseh was made a brigadier general in the British army and helped recapture Detroit and Fort Dearborn (Chicago). However, Harrison’s victory at the Battle of the Thames in 1813, which resulted in Tecumseh’s death, led to the collapse of his confederation.
In the Southeast, the Creek Indians gained a major victory against American forces at Fort Sims. Andrew Jackson led a counteroffensive, winning victories at Tallasahatchee and Talladega before crushing the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend in 1814.
Conflicts in Alaska and Florida
Native peoples strongly resisted the Russian occupation of Alaska. In Florida, the Seminole Indians and runaway slaves resisted the U.S. government’s attempts to remove them to lands west of the Mississippi River, leading to the Second Seminole War (1835-1842) and the Third Seminole War (1855-1858).
Removal and Resistance in the West
The U.S. government’s policy of removing Indian tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River met with resistance in the 1830s and 1840s. The Sac and Fox Indians were defeated in Black Hawk’s War (1831-1832). The acquisition of Texas and the Southwest in the 1840s led to a new series of conflicts.
On the Pacific Coast, the influx of immigrants to California led to attacks on native peoples. Disease, malnutrition, and warfare reduced the Indian population of California from 150,000 in 1845 to 35,000 in 1860. The army forced several tribes onto reservations in Oregon and Washington during the Rogue River, Yakima, and Spokane wars.
The Civil War and the Plains Indians
The Civil War saw a surge in white-Indian conflicts. The Five Civilized Tribes of the Indian Territory were divided, with some supporting the Confederacy. In 1864, Colorado volunteers massacred over two hundred Cheyennes and Arapahos at Sand Creek.
On the Great Plains, the army struggled to contain the mounted warriors of the Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Comanche, and Kiowa tribes. Philip Sheridan’s winter campaigns of 1868-1869 and the Red River War of 1874-1875 eventually broke the tribes’ resistance.
The Great Sioux War and the Nez Perce War
The Great Sioux War of 1876-1877 culminated in the annihilation of Custer’s cavalry at the Little Bighorn. However, the army eventually prevailed, forcing the tribes to sue for peace. In 1877, Chief Joseph’s Nez Perce led the army on an epic chase across the West before being forced to surrender near the Canadian border.
The Apache Wars and the End of Armed Resistance
In the Southwest, Cochise, Victorio, and Geronimo led Apache bands in resisting white encroachment until their surrender in the mid-1880s.
By the late 19th century, the major Indian-white conflicts in the United States had ended. The combination of military force, railroad expansion, the destruction of the buffalo, increased numbers of settlers, and the determination of the government to crush resistance had overwhelmed the tribes.
The Reader’s Companion to American History offers a comprehensive and insightful examination of these conflicts, providing a valuable resource for understanding this complex and often tragic chapter in American history. It serves as a reminder of the human cost of westward expansion and the enduring legacy of the American Indian Wars.
