Tolowa Indians

The Tolowa Indians are an indigenous people of northwestern California, historically inhabiting a region that stretched from Wilson Creek near present-day Klamath, California, northward to the Oregon border. They are classified within the Athapascan linguistic stock, a broad family of languages spoken across North America, with their closest cultural and linguistic relatives being the Chetco and Tututni tribes of southern Oregon. This geographical proximity fostered a shared heritage and interconnectedness that transcended modern political boundaries. The Tolowa people, deeply rooted in the landscapes of coastal California and Oregon, possess a rich history, unique customs, and a resilient spirit that has allowed them to persevere through significant challenges.

Nomenclature and Self-Identification:

The name "Tolowa" itself is not of Athapascan origin. It was bestowed upon them by their southern neighbors, the Yurok, and is believed to be derived from an Algonquian language. Throughout history, the Tolowa have been referred to by various names. Dorsey, in his manuscripts, used "Aqusta," meaning "southern language," while Heintzleman, in his reports from the mid-19th century, referred to them as "Lagoons" and "Lopas." The Naltunnetunne, another neighboring group, also had their own designation for the Tolowa. However, the Tolowa people traditionally refer to themselves as Xus, which simply translates to "person." This self-designation reflects a fundamental aspect of their identity – a connection to humanity and a sense of belonging within their community.

Traditional Territory and Settlement Patterns:

The ancestral homeland of the Tolowa Indians encompassed a diverse range of environments, from the rugged coastline and sandy beaches to the winding rivers, serene lakes, and the interior marshes, hills, and mountains. The Smith River, in particular, served as a vital artery, providing sustenance and transportation. The Tolowa established permanent villages strategically located throughout this territory, each serving as a hub for community life and resource management. These villages, numbering approximately eight in total, were more than just settlements; they were expressions of the Tolowa’s deep connection to the land and their understanding of its resources.

According to Drucker’s research in 1937, the Tolowa villages included:

• EtcÅ«let, situated at the end of a point in Lake Earl.
• Ha’tsahothwut, a site long since abandoned.
• Kehoslī’hwut, located on the east bank of the lower course of the Smith River.
• Mestlte’tltun, positioned on Crescent Bay.
• Mi’litcuntun, found on the middle course of the Smith River.
• Mu’nsontun, situated on the east bank of the lower course of the Smith River.
• Munshrī’na taso’, another long-abandoned site.
• Muslye’, located on the North Fork of the Smith River.
• Na’kutat, considered a suburb of Tatitun.
• Numore’tun, yet another long-abandoned site.
• Sitragī’tum, located on the west bank of the Smith River below Mill Creek.
• Ta’gestlsatun, a mixed Yurok and Tolowa village on the coast at the mouth of Wilson Creek.
• Ta’tatun, located on Crescent Bay.
• Tati’tun, situated on the shore of Crescent Bay near the north end.
• Tcestu’mtun, located on the South Fork of the Smith River.
• Tcunsu’tltun, on the east bank of Smith River at the mouth of Mill Creek.
• Te’nitcuntun, between the North and South Forks of Smith River at the junction.
• Tltru’ome, on Crescent Bay toward the south end.
• Tro’let, a small suburb of Yotokut near the mouth of Smith River.
• Tunme’tun, on a small branch of the North Fork of Smith River.
• Tushroshku’shtun, on the peninsula between two arms of Lake Earl.
• Yoto’kut, on the coast south of the mouth of Smith River.

Today, many Tolowa Indians continue to reside in and around Humboldt and Del Norte Counties in California, maintaining their connection to their ancestral lands.

Population Dynamics:

Estimating the historical population of the Tolowa is challenging due to the impact of disease and displacement following European contact. Kroeber estimated the Tolowa population to be "well under" 1,000 in 1770, later suggesting a possible modification to 450. The 1910 census recorded only 121 individuals. In 1930, the "Oregon Athapascans," including the Tolowa, were reported to number 504. From an estimated 2,400 in the early 19th century (out of roughly 4,000 Tolowa/Chetco/Tututnis), the population dwindled dramatically. By 1990, only 59 Indians lived on the Trinidad Rancheria and 32 Indians lived on the Elk Valley Rancheria, primarily Tolowa. While roughly 400 people identified themselves as Tolowa in 1990, these figures highlight the devastating impact of historical events on the Tolowa population.

Language and Cultural Heritage:

The Tolowa people spoke several dialects of Tolowa, an Athapaskan language. This language served as a crucial vehicle for transmitting cultural knowledge, traditions, and history from one generation to the next. However, like many indigenous languages, Tolowa faced significant challenges due to assimilation policies and the dominance of English. Today, revitalization efforts are underway to preserve and promote the Tolowa language, ensuring that future generations can connect with their linguistic heritage.

Historical Encounters and Transformations:

The history of the Tolowa Indians is marked by periods of both relative isolation and profound disruption. During the late 18th century, prior to direct contact with non-natives, an epidemic ravaged one of their villages, foreshadowing the devastating impact of European diseases. The first documented encounter occurred in June 1828 with Jedediah Smith and his exploring party. However, the Tolowa managed to maintain a degree of autonomy until around 1850. The subsequent decade witnessed a catastrophic decline in the Tolowa population, with more than half succumbing to disease and the violence of Anglo massacres. In 1860, following the Chetco/Rogue River Indian War, approximately 600 Tolowa were forcibly removed to reservations in Oregon, with some later relocated to the Hoopa Valley Reservation. These forced removals resulted in the loss of ancestral lands and disrupted traditional ways of life. The 1870 Ghost Dance revival reached the Tolowa around 1872, lasting for about ten years, reflecting their spiritual resilience in the face of adversity. Around the turn of the century, further population decline occurred due to diseases like measles and cholera, reducing their numbers by roughly 95 percent to around 200 people.

Despite these hardships, the Tolowa Indians demonstrated remarkable resilience. Individual Tolowa received allotments in the late 19th century, and in 1906, the government purchased land near the mouth of the Smith River, establishing the Smith River and Elk Valley Rancherias. By 1913, most Tolowa resided in and around Crescent City and on the Hoopa Valley and Siletz Reservations. The Del Norte Indian Welfare Association was founded as a community and self-help organization. However, the termination of the two rancherias in 1960 had devastating cultural consequences. In response, Tolowa landowners formed the Nele-chun-dun Business Council in 1973 and filed for federal acknowledgment as the Tolowa Nation ten years later. The rancherias were eventually reinstated in 1983, marking a significant victory for the Tolowa people.

Religious Practices and Worldview:

Traditional Tolowa religious practices were deeply intertwined with the natural world and their relationship to the land. Beginning in 1923, due to government crackdowns and confiscation of regalia, traditional religious observances were held in secret for at least 30 years. The Indian Shaker Movement, which emphasized traditional healing and spiritual practices, gained popularity around 1930 and remained influential for a generation. Key Tolowa ceremonies were often linked to diet, celebrating the first catch of the season, such as salmon, smelt, or sea lion. The Naydosh (Feather Dance) was performed as part of a World Renewal ceremony, reflecting the Tolowa’s commitment to maintaining balance and harmony within their environment.

Social Structure and Customs:

Tolowa society was traditionally organized around village communities, with leadership often vested in the wealthiest man. There was no formal chief or overarching political structure, with each village functioning independently. Prestige was highly valued, with the acquisition and display of wealth, or treasure, being of prime importance. Treasure included items such as large obsidian knives, necklaces of dentalium shell beads, and elaborate red woodpecker scalp headdresses. These items were not typically used for utilitarian purposes, but rather served as symbols of status and wealth, often used in bride prices. Wealthy men might have multiple wives. Shamans, often women or transvestite men, played a crucial role in healing and maintaining spiritual well-being, receiving high fees for their services.

Intermarriage and ceremonial interaction between the Tolowa and neighboring tribes were common, fostering cultural exchange and cooperation. Men primarily engaged in hunting, boat building, and fishing, while women focused on collecting and preparing food, especially acorns.

Material Culture and Technology:

The Tolowa people were skilled artisans and craftspeople, utilizing the resources of their environment to create tools, dwellings, and other essential items. They lived in square redwood-plank houses with two-pitched roofs, featuring a central area slightly excavated for cooking and sleeping and an interior ground-level ledge for storage. Men and boys used semisubterranean sweat houses for sleeping, gambling, and crafting nets and weapons.

Technological innovations included wild iris fishnets, tule mats, baskets of various fibers, and a range of stone, fiber, bone, and wooden tools. Deer hooves were used as musical instruments, and they counted by fives.

Contemporary Life:

Today, the Tolowa Indians continue to strive for self-determination and cultural preservation. They live at Elk Valley Rancheria, Smith River Rancheria, Big Lagoon Rancheria, and Trinidad Rancheria. Unemployment at Elk Valley in 1995 stood at about 40 percent. Economic activities there include casino gambling and a casket company. Access to jobs is relatively difficult. The Cher-ae Heights Indian Community of the Trinidad Rancheria, the Smith River Rancheria, and the Big Lagoon Rancheria are federally recognized tribal entities, as is the Elk Valley Rancheria of Smith River Tolowa Indians. The Tolowa Nation and the Tolowa-Tututni Tribe of Indians remain federally unrecognized.

Despite ongoing challenges, the Tolowa Indians are working to revitalize their language, culture, and traditions. They perform ceremonies such as the Naydosh (Feather Dance) and participate in Indian Shaker religious practices. Extended families often live together or nearby, and efforts are underway to establish tribal schools. Health care facilities are considered inadequate, and chronic health problems such as diabetes, heart disease, and substance abuse persist. However, the Tolowa people remain committed to building a brighter future for themselves and future generations, drawing strength from their rich heritage and their enduring connection to the land. They have written dictionaries and conduct classes in their native language and like most rural people, they garden, fish, and hunt for subsistence.