Shawnee Chief Cornstalk, also known by a variety of names including Keigh-tugh-guawas, Hokoleskwa, Hokolesqua, Wynepuechsika, Peter Cornstalk, and Peter Fry, was a significant figure in the history of the Shawnee Nation. Born around 1720 in what is now Mason County, West Virginia (then part of Virginia), he rose to prominence as a respected chief and a formidable leader during a tumultuous period marked by increasing conflict between Native Americans and American settlers. Shawnee Chief Cornstalk‘s life was one of both diplomacy and warfare, ultimately ending in tragedy and a legacy shrouded in legend.
Early Life and Rise to Leadership
While his exact birthplace remains a subject of debate among historians, many believe Shawnee Chief Cornstalk was born in present-day Pennsylvania. His early life coincided with a period of westward expansion by European settlers, pushing the Shawnee and other tribes further into the Ohio Country. Along with his sister, Nonhelema, who also became a prominent figure in Shawnee history, Cornstalk moved to the Ohio Country near present-day Chillicothe, as the Shawnee retreated from the encroaching wave of white settlement. This relocation significantly shaped his worldview and his commitment to protecting his people’s ancestral lands.
As he matured, Cornstalk demonstrated exceptional qualities of leadership, diplomacy, and military strategy. He possessed a commanding presence, a gift for oratory, and a deep understanding of the political landscape of the Ohio Valley. These attributes allowed him to rise through the ranks of the Shawnee Nation, eventually becoming one of its most influential chiefs.
Dunmore’s War and the Battle of Point Pleasant
Cornstalk’s most significant involvement in armed conflict came during Dunmore’s War in 1774. This conflict arose from tensions over land ownership in the Kentucky region. The Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768 had purportedly ceded lands south of the Ohio River to settlers and land speculators. However, the Shawnee and other tribes had not been party to these negotiations and continued to assert their claim to Kentucky as their traditional hunting grounds. This led to frequent clashes between settlers and Native American hunting parties.
Cornstalk recognized the growing threat posed by the increasing influx of settlers and initially attempted to prevent the escalation of hostilities through diplomacy. He understood the superior numbers and resources of the colonists and sought to find a peaceful resolution that would protect Shawnee interests. However, his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful as tensions continued to rise.
The culmination of Dunmore’s War was the Battle of Point Pleasant, fought on October 10, 1774. This battle saw Cornstalk leading a confederacy of Native American warriors, estimated at around 1,200 strong, against a force of Virginia militia under the command of General Andrew Lewis. The Native American forces, representing various tribes, massed along the Ohio River, preparing to defend their territory against the advancing settlers.
The battle was a fierce and bloody affair, lasting for several hours. The Native American warriors fought with courage and determination, but they were ultimately outmatched by the superior firepower of the colonial muskets. The battle resulted in significant casualties on both sides, with approximately 140 colonial soldiers killed and more than twice that number of Native Americans.
Despite their valiant efforts, the Native American forces were defeated, and they retreated westward into what is now Ohio. Following the battle, the colonists constructed Fort Blair (later renamed Fort Randolph) at the junction of the Kanawha and Ohio Rivers to prevent the Native Americans from returning to the area. This defeat marked a turning point in the struggle for control of the Ohio Valley and further solidified the settlers’ presence in the region.
Neutrality During the American Revolution
As the American Revolution loomed, Cornstalk found himself in a precarious position. He recognized the potential devastation that a full-scale war between the colonists and the British could bring to his people. With remarkable foresight, he advocated for a policy of neutrality, believing that the Shawnee should avoid entanglement in the conflict between the two white powers.
In an attempt to maintain peace and protect Shawnee interests, Cornstalk represented his nation at treaty councils held at Fort Pitt in 1775 and 1776. These councils were significant as they represented the first Indian treaties ever negotiated by the United States. Cornstalk hoped that through diplomacy, he could secure guarantees of Shawnee land rights and prevent further encroachment by settlers.
However, Cornstalk’s policy of neutrality was not universally supported within the Shawnee Nation. Many Shawnees, remembering past grievances and eager to reclaim lost lands, saw the American Revolution as an opportunity to align with the British and drive the settlers out of the Ohio Valley. This division within the Shawnee Nation led to the emergence of militant factions led by figures such as Blue Jacket, who favored active participation in the war on the side of the British. By the winter of 1776, the Shawnee were effectively split into a neutral faction led by Cornstalk and militant bands eager to engage in warfare.
Imprisonment and Tragic Death
Despite his efforts to maintain peace, Cornstalk’s fate took a tragic turn in 1777. Concerned about growing tensions and the increasing likelihood of Shawnee involvement in the war on the side of the British, Cornstalk, along with the Delaware Chief Red Hawk, made a fateful decision to travel to Fort Randolph at Point Pleasant on November 7, 1777. His intention was to warn the American garrison commander, Captain Arbuckle, of the impending threat and to negotiate a peaceful resolution.
During the meeting with Captain Arbuckle, Cornstalk expressed his opposition to war with the colonists, explaining that only he and his tribe were holding back from joining the British. He admitted, however, that he feared being forced to join the conflict if the other tribes decided to align with the British.
Despite Cornstalk’s peaceful intentions, Captain Arbuckle, suspicious of his motives and fearing a potential alliance between the Shawnee and the British, made the controversial decision to take Cornstalk, Red Hawk, and another Native American as hostages. The Americans believed that by holding Cornstalk captive, they could deter other tribes from attacking the fort.
Cornstalk and the other hostages were initially treated well and given comfortable quarters within the fort. Cornstalk even assisted his captors by providing valuable information and helping to create maps of the Ohio River Valley. On November 9, Cornstalk’s son, Ellinipisco, arrived at the fort to visit his father and was also detained.
The situation took a dark turn on November 10, 1777, when an American militiaman from the fort was killed nearby by unknown Indians. Enraged by the death of their comrade, a group of soldiers, acting against orders, broke into the quarters where Cornstalk, his son, and the other hostages were being held.
Despite the fact that Cornstalk and the other prisoners had no involvement in the killing of the militiaman, the soldiers, driven by anger and a desire for revenge, brutally executed them. As the soldiers stormed into the room, Cornstalk reportedly rose to meet them with remarkable bravery and dignity. However, his courage was not enough to deter the enraged soldiers, who opened fire with their muskets.
Cornstalk was shot multiple times before finally falling to the floor. Red Hawk attempted to escape up the chimney but was pulled back down and killed. Ellinipisco was shot where he sat, and the other unknown Indian was strangled to death.
Aftermath and Legacy
The murder of Cornstalk sent shockwaves through the American political and military leadership. Many recognized that Cornstalk had been a valuable ally who had worked to maintain peace and neutrality. His death was seen as a major setback in the effort to secure Shawnee neutrality during the American Revolution.
Virginia Governor Patrick Henry, outraged by the killings, condemned the soldiers responsible as "vile assassins" and ordered them to be brought to trial. However, due to a lack of cooperation from their fellow soldiers, who refused to testify against them, the killers were ultimately acquitted.
After the executions, the bodies of the other Native Americans were thrown into the Kanawha River. Cornstalk’s body, however, was buried near the fort at Point Pleasant, overlooking the confluence of the Kanawha and Ohio Rivers.
Over the years, Cornstalk’s remains were moved several times. In 1840, his bones were removed to the grounds of the Mason County Courthouse. In 1899, a monument was erected in his memory. In the late 1950s, when a new courthouse was built, his remains were placed in an aluminum box and reinterred in Tu-Endie-Wei Park, near the grave of a Virginia frontiersman whom Cornstalk had once fought and later befriended. A twelve-foot monument was erected in his honor.
The Curse of Cornstalk
Legends surrounding Cornstalk’s death claim that he uttered a curse as he lay dying, condemning the land to misfortune. While there is no contemporary historical evidence to support this claim, the legend of the curse has persisted for centuries. It is said that Cornstalk, in his final moments, looked upon his assassins and spoke these words:
"I was the border man’s friend. Many times I have saved him and his people from harm. I never warred with you, but only to protect our wigwams and lands. I refused to join your paleface enemies with the red coats. I came to the fort as your friend and you murdered me. You have murdered by my side, my young son…. For this, may the curse of the Great Spirit rest upon this land. May it be blighted by nature. May it even be blighted in its hopes. May the strength of its peoples be paralyzed by the stain of our blood."
According to the legend, the area surrounding Point Pleasant has been plagued by misfortune ever since Cornstalk’s death. Numerous tragedies and disasters have been attributed to the curse, including:
- The Monongah Mine Disaster (1907)
- A devastating tornado in 1944
- The Silver Bridge collapse (1967)
- A Piedmont Airlines plane crash (1968)
- The Southern Airways DC-10 crash (1970)
- An explosion at the Mason County Jail (1976)
- A freight train derailment (1978)
- The Willow Island scaffolding collapse (1978)
Whether these events are genuinely connected to a supernatural curse or simply a series of tragic coincidences remains a matter of debate. Some dismiss the curse as mere folklore, while others believe that it represents a tangible force that has brought misfortune to the region. Regardless of one’s beliefs, the legend of the curse of Shawnee Chief Cornstalk continues to captivate the imagination and shape the cultural identity of the Ohio River Valley. Shawnee Chief Cornstalk‘s story remains a poignant reminder of the complex and often tragic interactions between Native Americans and European settlers during the formative years of the United States.