The Lone Pine Paiute-Shoshone Tribe stands as a testament to resilience and cultural preservation in the face of historical adversity. A federally recognized tribe, it is comprised of both Mono Paiute and Timbisha Shoshone peoples, residing near the town of Lone Pine in Inyo County, California. This unique blend of cultures, deeply rooted in the Great Basin, contributes to the rich tapestry of Native American heritage in the United States. This article delves into the history, traditions, and contemporary life of the Lone Pine Paiute-Shoshone Tribe.
Tribal Identity and Names
The official name, Lone Pine Paiute-Shoshone Tribe, reflects the tribe’s geographic location and the two distinct, yet intertwined, tribal affiliations. The Shoshone people traditionally refer to themselves as Numa, meaning simply "the people." Similarly, the Mono people identify as Nyyhmy, which translates to "person."
The term "Shoshone" itself has an interesting etymology. It emerged around 1700, coinciding with the Shoshone’s acquisition of horses. Numa adopted "Shoshone," literally meaning "men who ride," reflecting the profound impact of equestrian culture on their way of life. The name "Paiute" is believed to mean "water Ute" or "true Ute," suggesting a historical connection or shared ancestry with the Ute people.
Over time, the tribe has been known by various names, including the Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Lone Pine Community of the Lone Pine Reservation. The derogatory term "diggers," often used to disparage Great Basin tribes, arose from plains sign language representing "digging with a stick," a gesture first demonstrated by the Crow tribe to Lewis and Clark. White Americans later weaponized this term as a racial slur, particularly targeting California tribes. The Timbisha Shoshone, a vital part of the Lone Pine Paiute-Shoshone Tribe, were historically also referred to as Panamint Shoshone or Koso. "Timbisha" translates to "red rock face paint," and it is also the name of the specific Shoshone language dialect spoken by those inhabiting Death Valley and the southern Owens Valley since prehistoric times. The alternate spelling of "Paiute" as "Piute" is also sometimes encountered.
Neighboring tribes often referred to the Shoshone as "Snakes," a designation reflected in their plains hand sign, which mimicked a slithering motion. The Yokuts, the tribe’s western neighbors, called the Mono Paiute monachie, meaning "fly people." This moniker stemmed from the Mono’s reliance on fly larvae as a primary food source and trade item. Anthropologists later shortened this to "Mono" when classifying their language dialect.
Geographic Context and Traditional Territory
Despite their location in California, the Lone Pine Paiute-Shoshone Tribe retains strong cultural ties to the Great Basin region. This vast intermountain area is characterized by arid landscapes, unique flora and fauna, and a distinct cultural heritage.
The Shoshone’s ancestral roots are deeply intertwined with the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. Archaeological evidence suggests a connection to the ancient hunter-gatherer Cochise Culture, which thrived approximately 10,000 years ago. As the Ice Age ended and the environment changed, the Uto-Aztecan ancestors of the Shoshone diverged from this culture.
These Uto-Aztecans eventually settled along the shores of Lake Lahontan, a massive prehistoric lake that covered much of present-day Nevada. As the lake dried up between 9,000 and 7,000 years ago due to global warming, another cultural division occurred. The Numic ancestors of the Shoshone remained in the Great Basin, while others migrated south, eventually becoming the Aztecs, Hopi, Pima, Serrano, Cahuilla, and other tribes of the Southwest and Mexico.
Approximately 3,000 years ago, the Numic peoples further divided, giving rise to the Western Shoshone, who formed part of the Central Numic language group alongside the Comanche, Koso, and Northern Shoshone. Linguistic evidence suggests that the Panamint, ancestors of the Timbisha Shoshone, arrived in Death Valley within the last millennium, though some accounts claim an earlier arrival.
Treaties, Reservation, and Population
The Treaty of Ruby Valley, ratified by Congress in 1866, aimed to establish peace and friendship between the United States and the Western Shoshone. While granting the United States rights-of-way across Western Shoshone territories, the treaty also implicitly acknowledged Shoshone land rights.
Today, the Lone Pine Paiute-Shoshone Tribe resides on the Lone Pine Reservation in Inyo County, located in the Owens River Valley on the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The reservation encompasses 237.4 acres (0.96 km2) and serves as the tribal headquarters.
Estimating the pre-contact population of the Panamint Shoshone is challenging. It is believed that around 1849, approximately 150 individuals lived in four small winter villages within Death Valley. By 1891, their population was estimated to be less than 100. Kroeber estimated the combined Mono population in 1770 to be around 4,000, while the Northern Paiute population within California was approximately 500. Sherburne F. Cook placed the Western Mono population alone at around 1,800. Kroeber reported the Mono population in 1910 as 1,500. As of 2000, the registered population of the Lone Pine Paiute-Shoshone Tribe was approximately 1,400 enrolled members.
Governance, Language, and Cultural Heritage
The Lone Pine Paiute-Shoshone Tribe is governed by a Tribal Council, comprised of five members, including executive officers such as the Chairman, Vice-Chairman, Secretary, Treasurer, and a Trustee. Elections determine the composition of the Tribal Council, ensuring community representation.
The tribe’s linguistic heritage reflects its dual ancestry. The Timbisha language belongs to the Uto-Aztecan language family, specifically the Numic branch, Central Numic subgroup, and the Timbisha dialect chain. The Mono language also belongs to the Uto-Aztecan family, Numic branch, but falls under the Western Numic subgroup and the Mono dialect. Timbisha has Western, Central, and Eastern regional varieties, with Timbisha Shoshone representing the Central dialect. Mono has two main dialects: Eastern (Owens Valley Paiute) and Western (Mono Paiute). The number of fluent speakers of both languages is a matter of ongoing documentation and revitalization efforts.
Shoshone oral tradition recounts their descent from a tribe known as the Sheepeaters, who resided in Yellowstone and crafted bows from bighorn sheep horns using the area’s hot springs. Rock art found in the region, attributed to Western Shoshone, Southern Paiute, and Kawaiisu peoples, depicts bighorn sheep and animistic deities, highlighting the cultural significance of these animals.
Social Organization, Allies, and Enemies
The Mono are divided into the Eastern Mono (Owens Valley Paiute) and the Western Mono (Monache or Mono Lake Paiute), based on their location relative to the Sierra crest. Historically, the tribes of the Mojave Desert were generally peaceful, with the exception of the Mojave and Yuma of the Colorado River.
Cultural Practices and Contemporary Life
Both the Timbisha and Mono peoples are renowned for their exquisite basketry, a testament to their artistic skills and connection to the natural world. Traditional clothing, housing, and subsistence practices were adapted to the harsh environment of the Great Basin.
Today, the Lone Pine Paiute-Shoshone Tribe strives to maintain its cultural heritage while navigating the complexities of modern life. The tribe’s economy is multifaceted, and its members are actively involved in community development and self-governance.
Historical Trauma and Resilience
The history of the Timbisha Shoshone, in particular, is marked by significant hardship. The California Gold Rush brought an influx of settlers who disrupted their traditional way of life and led to violence and displacement. The Act for the Government and Protection of Indians, enacted in 1850, effectively legalized the enslavement of Native Americans.
The establishment of Death Valley National Monument in 1933 further impacted the tribe, as they were forced to relocate to a small village with inadequate housing and resources. Despite these challenges, the Timbisha Shoshone persevered, eventually achieving federal recognition in 1983. The Timbisha Shoshone Homeland Act, ratified in 2000, restored 7,700 acres of land to the tribe, though certain economic development rights were waived.
The Lone Pine Paiute-Shoshone Tribe continues to advocate for its rights, preserve its culture, and build a brighter future for its members. The story of the tribe is a powerful reminder of the resilience, adaptability, and enduring spirit of Native American peoples in the face of adversity.