The Cherokee (ᏣᎳᎩ) are an Indigenous people with a rich history rooted in the Southeastern United States, primarily within the present-day states of Georgia, North Carolina, and Eastern Tennessee. As members of the Iroquoian language family, their linguistic connections extend to other Native American groups in the Great Lakes region, a fact supported by their oral traditions which recount a southward migration in ancient times. In the 19th century, historians and ethnographers meticulously documented these oral accounts, providing valuable insights into the Cherokee’s origins and movements. This article delves into the social structure of the Cherokee people, exploring the roles of bands, Cherokee Bands, Gens, and Clans, and the complex system of kinship that governed their lives.
The Seven Clans: Foundations of Cherokee Society
A defining feature of Cherokee society is its clan system. Historically, the Cherokee were organized into seven distinct clans, each playing a crucial role in the social, political, and spiritual life of the community. These clans served as the building blocks of Cherokee identity, influencing everything from marriage and inheritance to dispute resolution and religious ceremonies.
The seven clans are:
- AniWaya (Wolf Clan): The Wolf Clan is traditionally considered the largest and most prominent of the seven clans. Members of this clan were often seen as protectors and warriors. The wolf, a symbol of courage and strength, embodies the clan’s characteristics.
- Anigilohi (Long Hair Clan): Also known as the Twister, or Wind Clan, members were known as peacemakers.
- Anisahoni (Blue Clan): Also known as the Panther or Wild Cat Clan. Members were known as healers and medicine people.
- Anigatogewi (Wild Potato Clan): Those of this clan were known as gatherers and providers.
- Anawi (Deer Clan): The Deer Clan was responsible for hunting and providing sustenance for the community. Deer, revered for their grace and gentleness, symbolized the clan’s connection to the natural world.
- Anitsiskwa (Bird Clan): The Bird Clan was known for its messengers.
- Aniwahya (Paint Clan): Those of the Paint Clan were known as medicine makers.
While the first four clan names have relatively clear translations, the exact meanings of the last three have been obscured over time. Historical evidence suggests that there may have originally been as many as fourteen clans, but some either became extinct or were absorbed into the remaining seven. The "seven clans" are deeply ingrained in Cherokee tradition, appearing frequently in ritual prayers and even within the tribe’s printed laws, underscoring their enduring significance.
The clan system also appears to have been connected to the "seven mother towns" of the Cherokee, as described by Cuming in 1730. Each town had its own chief, whose position was hereditary through the female line, further emphasizing the matrilineal nature of Cherokee society.
The Significance of Clans and Gens
Within the Cherokee clan system, the concept of "gens" (from the Latin word for "clan" or "family") further delineates kinship ties. A gen encompasses all the descendants of a common female ancestor, tracing lineage through the maternal line. This matrilineal structure is a defining characteristic of Cherokee society. It dictates inheritance, property rights, and even social standing. Children belong to their mother’s clan, and their social identity is thus firmly rooted in the maternal lineage.
The matrilineal system played a crucial role in maintaining social order and preventing conflicts within the community. Because clan membership was determined by the mother, it ensured that kinship ties remained strong and clear. The system also provided a mechanism for resolving disputes, as clan members were expected to support and protect one another.
Cherokee Bands: Geographical and Political Divisions
In addition to clans and gens, the Cherokee were also organized into geographical and political divisions known as "bands." These bands were essentially local communities, often centered around a particular village or settlement. Membership in a band was typically based on proximity and shared interests, rather than strict kinship ties.
The bands served as the primary units of local governance, responsible for managing their own affairs and representing their interests within the larger Cherokee Nation. Each band had its own leaders and councils, which made decisions on matters such as land use, resource management, and dispute resolution. The bands also played a crucial role in maintaining social cohesion and providing mutual support to their members.
The Cherokee Nation: A Sovereign Entity
By the 19th century, the Cherokee had developed a sophisticated political system, with a centralized government known as the Cherokee Nation. This government was responsible for representing the Cherokee people in their dealings with the United States government and for managing the affairs of the entire nation.
The Cherokee Nation had a written constitution, a system of laws, and a court system. It also operated schools, businesses, and other institutions, demonstrating its commitment to progress and self-determination. The Cherokee’s adoption of these aspects of European-American culture led to them being recognized as one of the "Five Civilized Tribes" by white settlers in the United States.
Citizenship and Tribal Membership
Today, the Cherokee people are represented by three federally recognized tribes: the Cherokee Nation, the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians, and the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. Each tribe has its own requirements for citizenship (membership), reflecting its unique history and circumstances.
Generally, citizenship requirements include:
- Certification of Degree of Indian Blood (DIB): This process, overseen by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), requires establishing "direct lineal descent" from an individual enrolled in the official "final roll" of citizens and calculating DIB based on that ancestor’s blood quantum.
- Direct Lineal Descent: Legal documentation, such as birth and marriage certificates or a "judicial determination of heirs," must establish direct lineal descent.
- Minimum DIB: Each federally recognized tribal government establishes its own minimum DIB requirement.
- Other Requirements: Each tribal government may establish additional requirements.
These requirements mean that some individuals of Cherokee heritage lost their citizenship at the time of the final rolls.
Current Citizenship Requirements:
- Cherokee Nation: Any degree of Cherokee blood quantum and direct lineal descent from a Dawes Roll member.
- Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians of North Carolina: (Tribal Ordinance #284 dated June 24, 1996) 1/16 degree of Cherokee blood and direct lineal descent from a member of the Baker Roll of 1924, revised.
- United Keetoowah Band of Oklahoma: 1/4 degree of "Old Settler" and/or Keetoowah Cherokee blood.
The Dawes Roll, crucial for determining Cherokee Nation citizenship, enrolled individuals as:
- Citizens by blood
- Minor citizens by blood
- New born citizens by blood
- Citizens by marriage
- Freedmen
- New born Freedmen
- Minor Freedmen
- Delaware Indians adopted by the Cherokee
- Citizens enrolled by an Act of Congress (1914)
The original enrollment closed on September 1, 1902, with additions made until March 4, 1906. Enrollment requirements at that time included applying between 1899-1906, appearing on previous tribal rolls of 1880 or 1896, and having a permanent residence within the Cherokee Nation (now the 14 northeastern counties of Oklahoma). Ancestors who separated from the Tribe and settled in states such as Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri, and Texas, lost their citizenship within the Cherokee Nation.
Only enrolled members of the Cherokee Nation named on the Final Rolls and/or their descendants are furnished Certificates of Degree of Indian Blood (CDIB Cards) and/or tribal membership. CDIBs are issued only through the natural parents. In cases of adoption, quantum of Indian blood must be proven through the BIOLOGICAL PARENTS to the enrolled ancestor.
The Legacy of the "Old Settlers"
The "Old Settlers" were a group of Cherokee who removed to what is now Arkansas under the treaties of 1817 and 1819. They settled between the Arkansas and White Rivers, west of a line from current Batesville to a spot about midway between today’s Conway and Morrilton. Those listed on the Emigration Roll of 1817 and the Old Settler Roll of 1851 are considered "old settlers." Those on the 1851 census who enrolled under the Dawes Commission retained their citizenship.
State Recognition and Non-Federally Recognized Groups
It’s important to distinguish between federally recognized tribes and state-recognized tribes. Cherokee Bands, Gens, and Clans is an example of one of many Native American Indian Tribes and Heritage Groups that are recognized by individual states for their various internal governmental purposes. "State recognition" confers limited benefits under federal law and is not the same as federal recognition, which is the federal government’s acknowledgment of a tribe as a sovereign nation.
The legitimacy of state-recognized tribes is often contested, as the United States Constitution grants the United States Congress power over Indian affairs. Some state-recognized tribes may not require proof of Native American ancestry for enrollment, contributing to controversy.
Currently, there are over 348 state and non-recognized Cherokee groups, some calling themselves tribes or nations, others heritage groups, and some hobbyist groups.
Conclusion
The social and political organization of the Cherokee people is a complex and multifaceted system. Cherokee Bands, Gens, and Clans are the foundational component of this society. The clan system, with its matrilineal structure and emphasis on kinship ties, has played a vital role in shaping Cherokee identity and culture. While the Cherokee have faced numerous challenges throughout their history, their commitment to self-determination and cultural preservation remains unwavering. Their story stands as a testament to the resilience and adaptability of Indigenous peoples in the face of adversity.