The Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin, known historically as the "wild rice people," represents a vibrant and enduring presence in the state’s rich cultural tapestry. As a federally recognized tribe, the Menominee have inhabited the lands of Wisconsin for millennia, making them the oldest continuous Native American community within the state’s borders. Their history is deeply intertwined with the region’s ecology, particularly the cultivation and harvesting of wild rice, a staple that has sustained them for generations and lent them their enduring moniker.
Identity and Nomenclature
The official tribal name is the Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin. The tribe’s identity is inextricably linked to their language and traditional lands. Their traditional name, Mamaceqtaw, simply translates to "the people," underscoring their deep connection to their community and shared heritage.
The name "Menominee" itself has an interesting etymology. While Mamaceqtaw is their self-designated name, "Menominee" was adopted by European settlers from the Ojibwe people, another Algonquian tribe. As Europeans moved westward, they encountered the Ojibwe first, who informed them of the "Menominee," or "wild rice people." The Menominee word for wild rice, Omaeqnomenew, is the root of both the tribe’s name and their language.
Early French explorers and traders, encountering the Menominee’s reliance on wild rice, referred to them as folles avoines or peuples d’avoines, meaning "wild oats people." The Anishinaabe (Ojibwa), their Algonquian neighbors to the north, used the term manoominii, again translating to "wild rice people." This multitude of names and translations reflects the tribe’s integral connection to this vital food source.
Throughout history, the name has been rendered in various forms, reflecting different interpretations and spellings by European recorders. Alternate names and spellings include Menomini, Malhomines, Menomonee, Mishinimakinago, Misi’nimak Kimiko Wini’niwuk, Michilimackinac, Mishinimakinago, M’sh’ma’k’nung, Mi-shi-ne-macki naw-go, Missilimakinak, and Teiodondoraghie.
Location and Territory
The Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin are a part of the Northeast (Eastern Woodland) cultural region. Today, they are primarily located in the state of Wisconsin.
Historically, the Menominee’s territory encompassed an estimated 10 million acres (40,000 km2) across present-day Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. The tribe is believed to have been well-established in this territory for over a millennium. Some accounts suggest a connection to the Old Copper Culture people and other indigenous groups who inhabited the area for as long as 10,000 years. However, Menominee oral history maintains that they have always been present in this region, a testament to their deep roots and enduring connection to the land.
Governance and Recognition
The Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin is a federally recognized tribe, possessing sovereign rights within their reservation. Their relationship with the federal government has been defined by a series of treaties and legal decisions, shaping their present-day status.
The Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin has the unique distinction of having a reservation that falls exclusively under federal law, rather than being subject to Wisconsin state law under Public Law 280. This reinforces their sovereign status and autonomy in governing their internal affairs.
The Menominee Reservation was established through a treaty with the United States signed on May 12, 1854. In this agreement, the Menominee relinquished claims to lands held under previous treaties in exchange for a designated territory of 432 square miles (1,120 km2) along the Wolf River in present-day Wisconsin. A subsequent treaty on February 11, 1856, carved out the southwestern corner of this reservation to create a separate area for the Stockbridge and Lenape (Munsee) tribes, who had migrated to the region as refugees from New York state. These latter two tribes now form the federally recognized Stockbridge-Munsee Community.
The reservation’s land area encompasses 353.894 square miles (916.581 km2). The tribal headquarters are located in Keshena, Wisconsin, operating within the Central Time Zone.
Population and Enrollment
At the time of European contact, James Mooney estimated the Menominee population in 1650 to be approximately 3,000 people. Today, the Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin boasts a registered population of approximately 8,700 enrolled members.
To qualify for tribal enrollment, individuals must be on the tribal roll established under subsection 4c of the Menominee Restoration Act or be a descendant of an enrolled tribal member. Additionally, applicants must possess at least 1/4 Menominee blood quantum to be eligible for enrollment.
Language and Culture
The Menominee language, classified within the Algonquian language family (specifically, Central Algonquian), is a vital component of the tribe’s cultural identity. However, it faces severe endangerment, with only a handful of fluent speakers remaining. A 1997 report by the Menominee Historic Preservation Office indicated that only 39 people spoke Menominee as their first language, all of whom were elderly. While 26 spoke it as a second language, and 65 others had learned some of it for comprehension or teaching purposes, the urgency of language preservation efforts is undeniable.
Scholarly resources for studying the Menominee language and culture include Leonard Bloomfield’s 1928 bilingual text collection and his 1962 grammar, considered a landmark work. Alanson Skinner’s anthropological studies also offer valuable insights into the tribe’s history and traditions.
The tribe’s creation story places their origins at the mouth of the Menominee River, where it flows into Green Bay of Lake Michigan, the location of the modern city of Marinette, Wisconsin.
Social Structure and Traditions
The Menominee social structure is traditionally organized around five principal clans: the Bear, Eagle, Wolf, Crane, and Moose. Each clan has specific responsibilities and roles within the tribe. With a patrilineal kinship system, children traditionally inherit their social status and clan affiliation from their fathers.
Important ceremonies and rites of passage mark significant stages in life. During puberty, both boys and girls undergo a period of fasting and isolation in a small wigwam. They then meet individually with Elders to interpret their dreams and receive guidance on their future responsibilities within the tribe.
History and Treaties
The Menominee are descendants of the Late Woodland Indians who inhabited the lands previously occupied by the Hopewell Indians, the earliest known inhabitants of the Lake Michigan region. As the Hopewell culture declined around 800 A.D., the Lake Michigan region became the domain of the Late Woodland Indians.
Early fur traders and explorers from France encountered these descendants, including the Menominee, Chippewa (Ojibwa), Ottawa, Potawatomi, Sauk, Fox, Winnebago, and Miami tribes. Jean Nicolet is believed to be the first European to reach Lake Michigan in 1634 or 1638, initiating interactions with the Menominee during the colonial era.
Initially neutral during the War of 1812, the Menominee later allied with the British and Canadians, assisting in the defeat of American forces attempting to recapture Fort Mackinac in the Battle of Mackinac Island.
Between 1821 and 1848, the Menominee gradually ceded much of their land in Michigan and Wisconsin to the U.S. government through seven treaties. Chief Oshkosh famously rejected an offer of land on the Crow River, deeming their current territory superior for hunting and resources.
The tribe faced termination in the 1950s under federal assimilation policies. This period led to the landmark Supreme Court case of Menominee Tribe v. United States (1968), which upheld their treaty hunting and fishing rights. The Supreme Court ruled that the tribe’s traditional rights had not been extinguished by the termination act, as Congress had not explicitly revoked them in the legislation.
Federal recognition was restored to the tribe in 1973 through an act of Congress, and the reservation was re-established in 1975. The tribe operates under a written constitution, with an elected government that assumed administrative control from the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) in 1979.
Economy and Resources
The Menominee have traditionally practiced sustainable logging. A 1905 tornado that downed a significant amount of timber led to the involvement of the United States Forest Service in managing their forest. Despite the tribe’s preference for sustainable yield policies, the Forest Service implemented clear-cutting practices until 1926, which significantly damaged the forest.
The Department of the Interior regained control and reduced timber cutting, allowing the forest to regenerate. In 1934, the Menominee filed suit against the Forest Service, resulting in an $8.5 million settlement in 1952.
Today, the Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin manages a diverse economy. In 2013, the BIA approved plans for a casino at the former Dairyland Greyhound Park in Kenosha, Wisconsin. An amendment to the 2014 Farm Bill authorized the cultivation of industrial hemp. The tribe continues to manage its valuable forestry resources through a sustainable timber program.
Religion and Beliefs
Traditional Menominee spiritual beliefs center on a cosmology where the Earth divides the upper and lower worlds, representing good and evil, respectively. These worlds are further divided into layers, with the most powerful entities residing in the furthest reaches.
Dreaming is used as a means of connecting with guardian spirits to gain power. Marriage customs dictate that members of the same clan, considered relatives, must choose partners from outside their clan.
Education
The College of the Menominee Nation, founded in 1993 and accredited in 1998, is located in Keshena, Wisconsin. The college provides higher education opportunities rooted in Menominee culture and values.
Contemporary Issues
In October 2015, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) raided the reservation and destroyed 30,000 plants, claiming they were marijuana. The Menominee asserted that the plants were industrial hemp, the cultivation of which was authorized by federal law, highlighting ongoing conflicts and challenges related to tribal sovereignty and economic development.