Native American women’s suffrage movement

Echoes of Sovereignty: The Unsung Struggle of Native American Women for the Vote

While the narrative of women’s suffrage in the United States often culminates with the ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920, granting white women the right to vote, this widely celebrated victory cast a long shadow over the complex and often overlooked struggles of other groups. Among the most marginalized were Native American women, whose fight for political agency was interwoven with battles for sovereignty, citizenship, and the very preservation of their cultural identities. Their suffrage movement, far from a singular, unified push, was a multifaceted, decades-long odyssey shaped by colonialism, forced assimilation, and the unique intersection of racial and gender discrimination.

To understand the profound significance of Native American women’s suffrage, one must first recognize the stark contrast between pre-colonial Indigenous societies and the patriarchal norms introduced by European colonizers. Many Native American nations, particularly those in the Northeast and Southwest like the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy, Cherokee, and Pueblo peoples, operated under matrilineal or matrifocal systems. In these societies, women held significant political, economic, and spiritual power. They owned property, controlled food distribution, influenced leadership selection, and participated in tribal councils. Clan mothers, for instance, held the power to nominate and even depose male chiefs within the Haudenosaunee system. This was a world where women’s voices were not merely heard but were foundational to the social and political fabric.

The arrival of European colonizers, however, systematically dismantled these structures. Driven by a blend of Christian evangelism and patriarchal ideology, colonizers imposed their own gender norms, which relegated women to a domestic sphere and stripped them of public authority. The Dawes Act of 1887, a cornerstone of U.S. assimilation policy, exemplifies this destructive shift. By breaking up communal tribal lands into individual allotments, the Act often assigned land titles to male heads of household, effectively dispossessing Native women and undermining their traditional land-based power. This policy was a deliberate attempt to force Indigenous families into a European-American model, where women’s influence was dramatically diminished.

As the mainstream women’s suffrage movement gained momentum in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Native American women found themselves in a unique and often precarious position. Many white suffragists, while advocating for their own rights, often did so from a position of racial superiority, failing to extend solidarity to women of color. Indeed, some even used racist arguments, suggesting that granting white women the vote would help "balance" the political power of Black and immigrant men. For Native American women, the path to the ballot box was not merely about gender equality; it was inextricably linked to the complex question of their legal status as citizens.

Until 1924, the vast majority of Native Americans were not considered U.S. citizens. They were viewed as members of sovereign nations, wards of the federal government, or, in many cases, simply as "Indians" without clear legal standing within the American body politic. This meant that even if the 19th Amendment passed, it would not automatically grant them the right to vote in federal or state elections, as they lacked the fundamental prerequisite of citizenship.

Despite these immense hurdles, Native American women were not passive observers. They actively engaged in the broader political landscape, often through the "Red Progressives" movement, advocating for tribal sovereignty, land rights, and citizenship. They understood that the vote was a tool for self-determination, a means to protect their communities and cultures from further encroachment.

One of the most prominent figures in this struggle was Zitkála-Šá (Gertrude Simmons Bonnin), a Yankton Dakota writer, musician, educator, and political activist. A fierce advocate for Indigenous rights, Zitkála-Šá co-founded the National Council of American Indians (NCAI) in 1926. She tirelessly lobbied Congress for policies that would protect Native lands and cultures, recognizing that political participation was essential for the survival of her people. For her, suffrage was not just about individual women’s rights, but about empowering entire nations. She saw the vote as a means to reclaim agency and challenge the paternalistic control of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Her work exemplified the intersectional nature of their fight: challenging both racial and gender discrimination simultaneously.

Another influential voice was Laura Cornelius Kellogg, an Oneida activist, author, and suffragist. Kellogg, often referred to as a "Red Progressive," traveled extensively, speaking out against the injustices faced by Native Americans and advocating for self-governance and economic independence. She believed in the inherent strength and wisdom of Indigenous women and saw their political engagement as vital for the future of their communities. She challenged the very notion that Native people needed "civilizing," asserting their right to determine their own destinies.

Marie Louise Bottineau Baldwin, a Turtle Mountain Chippewa lawyer and activist, also played a crucial role. As one of the first Native American women to attend law school and work for the federal government (in the Office of Indian Affairs), she used her position to advocate for Indigenous rights and women’s suffrage. She was a visible presence in Washington D.C. suffrage parades, proudly marching in traditional regalia, thereby asserting both her Indigenous identity and her demand for political equality. Her participation highlighted the diversity within the suffrage movement, even as that diversity was often ignored by its mainstream leaders.

The pivotal moment for Native American citizenship came with the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 (also known as the Snyder Act). This act declared all non-citizen Native Americans born within the territorial limits of the United States to be citizens. While seemingly a victory, it was a complex and often contradictory development. For many, citizenship was a "double-edged sword." As Zitkála-Šá herself noted, "the white man’s law gives us no protection against the white man’s greed." Citizenship did not automatically translate into political empowerment or an end to discrimination. Some Native nations viewed it as another imposition, a further erosion of their sovereignty. More critically, the Act did not immediately guarantee the right to vote.

Even after 1924, states retained the power to disenfranchise citizens, and many states used this power to prevent Native Americans from voting. Common tactics included:

• State Laws: Some states simply declared Native Americans ineligible to vote, often citing their status as "wards of the government" or their residence on reservations.
• Literacy Tests: Discriminatory literacy tests were disproportionately applied to Native voters, despite many being fluent in their own languages but not necessarily English.



• Poll Taxes and Property Requirements: Economic barriers were used to suppress the vote, hitting economically marginalized Native communities particularly hard.
• Residency Requirements: Some states argued that living on a reservation meant Native Americans were not "residents" of the state for voting purposes.
• Intimidation and Violence: Like African Americans in the Jim Crow South, Native Americans faced threats and violence when attempting to register or cast their ballots.

It wasn’t until the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and subsequent amendments that many of these state-level barriers were finally dismantled, though the fight for full and equitable access to the ballot box continues in some Indigenous communities to this day. States like Arizona and New Mexico, for example, did not grant Native Americans the right to vote until 1948, a full 24 years after the Indian Citizenship Act. Utah followed suit in 1957.

The legacy of Native American women’s suffrage movement is profound. It reminds us that the fight for universal suffrage was never a monolithic endeavor. For Indigenous women, the vote was not just about individual rights; it was a battle for collective survival, for the preservation of cultural heritage, and for the recognition of their inherent sovereignty. Their struggle highlighted the deep-seated biases within American democracy and exposed the limitations of a suffrage movement that often prioritized white women’s rights over the complex needs of women of color.

Today, Native American women continue to be powerful political forces, leading tribal nations, serving in state and federal legislatures, and advocating for environmental justice, healthcare access, and the protection of Indigenous lands. Their ancestors’ fight for the vote laid the groundwork for these contemporary movements, proving that even in the face of immense adversity, the demand for self-determination and political voice can never truly be silenced. Their story is a crucial chapter in the broader narrative of American democracy, a testament to resilience, and a powerful reminder that true justice requires acknowledging and uplifting all voices.